INTRODUCTION

Characteristic and Analysis of Bk. 7

After a short Introduction (cc. 1-4), which serves to explain the delay in the Reinvasion of Hellas after Marathon by various considerationsthe need of fresh levies, the revolt of Egypt, the death of Dareios, and the accession of Xerxesthe [p. xx] seventh Book, as we reckon it, falls almost self-evidently into two, or into three, main parts. The first part deals with Persian history, and records the antecedents of the invasion, and the advance of the king to the gates of Greece (cc. 5-131). Whatever the Sources underlying this part of the narrative, the story is told, so to speak, from the Asiatic point of view: it is not primarily Greek history. We may erect the historian's account of contemporaneous politics and preparations among the Greeks into a second and co-ordinate Part (cc. 132-178), though in bulk it amounts to little more than half the size of the previous Part. An equal section of the Book will then remain to make a third Part, comprising the story of the actual outbreak of hostilities, and of the conduct of the war down to the capture of Thermopylai (cc. 179-239). These two Parts taken together as nearly as possible equal in bulk the first Part, and as the material contained in them is manifestly Hellenic in origin and interest, some analysts might prefer to divide the Book into two equal Parts (I. 5-131; II. 132-239). In either case, whether making a dual or a triple division, we recognize the principle of balance, of parallelism, of symmetry in the composition, which may have helped to determine the later division into Booksa division skilfully made in accordance, on the whole, with the inner structure of the work itself. Throughout the Book, in its dual or triple divisions, the narrative proceeds with little interruption, or digression, save what is immediately germane to the subject. The excursus on Sicilian history (cc. 153-156) most nearly approaches to a veritable departure from the argument; yet even this departure, though probably a later insertion, like many smaller passages, from the author's own hand, rather enhances than disturbs the main interest by a suggestive aside. The still minuter Analysis which follows may exhibit the structure and relations of the main Parts of the Book more intelligibly, and may also guarantee the observations above formulated upon the closeness of the argument, the continuity of the treatment.

INTRODUCTION (cc. 1-4).

i. Causa belli (Marathon, etc.), c. 1.

ii. Reasons for delay (cc. 1-4).

1. Fresh preparations by Dareios, c. 1.

2. Revolt of Egypt, c. 1.

3. Question of Succession, or Vice-gerency, determined in favour of Xerxes, cc. 2, 3.

4. Death of Dareios, c. 4.

Part I. IMMEDIATE ANTECEDENTS, AND EARLY STAGES, OF THE INVASION (cc. 5-137).

i. Accession, Policy, Councils, Preparations of Xerxes, cc. 5-25.

1. Accession of Xerxes: disposition to Peace, c. 5.

2. Policy of war adopted, under the influence of Mardonios, c. 5.

Greek allies and exiles, Aleuadai, c. 6.

Peisistratidai.

Demaratos.

3. Reconquest of Egypt, c. 7.

4. The King's Councils: three days and three nights, cc. 8-19.

(a) First Day: First Council: Speeches of Xerxes, c. 8, and Mardonios, c. 9, for War.

Speech of Artabanos, in favour of peace, c. 10.

Decision of Xerxes, and speech, c. 11.

Night: Repentance of Xerxes: in spite of a Vision, c. 12.

(b) Second Day: Second Council: Speech of Xerxes in favour of peace, c. 13.

Night: Second vision of Xerxes, c. 14.

Artabanos summoned: Speech of Xerxes, c. 15.

Speech of Artabanos, c. 16.

Vision of Artabanos, c. 17.

Speech of Artabanos, c. 18.

(c) Third Day: Third Council: War policy supported by Artabanos and Xerxes, c. 18.

Night: Third vision of Xerxes: interpretation by Magoi, c. 19.

5. Actual preparations for the invasion, cc. 19-25.

(1) The Levy en masse, cc. 19, 20, 21.

Comparison of the expedition with others.

(2) Athos-canal, and Bridges, cc. 22-25 (cp. cc. 33-37).

(3) Commissariat: cc. 21-25 (cp. cc. 118-120, 187).

ii. The Advance of Xerxes and his Forces, cc. 26-127 (137).

1. From Susa to Kritalla, c. 26.

2. From Kritalla to Sardes, cc. 26-31.

A. On the march: (1) From Kritalla to Kelainai, c. 26.

Geographical note on Kelainai and its rivers, ib.

Mythological note on Marsyas and Apollo, ib.

Episode of Pythios s. of Atys, cc. 27-29.

(2) From Kelainai to Kolossai, c. 30.

Notes on the Salt-lake, and the Lykos.

(3) From Kolossai to Kydrara, ib.

Note on the stele of Kroisos.

(4) From Kydrara via Kallatebos to Sardes, c. 31.

Notes: road to Karia: sweetmeat manufactory at Kallatebos: anecdote of the Plane-tree.

B. Pause at Sardes: (5) Xerxes winters in Sardes (cp. 9. 108).

(a) Mission of Heralds into Hellas.

(b) The Bridges on the Hellespont, cc. 33-36.

(c) Additional note on the canal, c. 37.

(d) The Departure: eclipse, ib.

Pythios and his son, cc. 38, 39.

The order of march, cc. 40, 41.

3. From Sardes to Abydos, cc. 37-43.

A. On the march: Eclipse of the sun, c. 37.

Punishment of Pythios, cc. 38-39.

Procession from Sardes, cc. 40, 41.

Thunderstorm, c. 42.

Xerxes at Troy, c. 43.

B. Pause: Xerxes at Abydos, cc. 44-53.

Naval review: the tyrant's tears, c. 45.

Dialogue with Artabanos, cc. 46-52.

The King's general Order, c. 53.

4. The crossing of the Hellespont, cc. 54-56.

An Hellespontian bon mot, c. 56, prodigies, c. 57.

5. From Sestos to Doriskos.

A. The march, c. 58.

B. The halt at Doriskos, cc. 59-107.

Description of the place, c. 59.

Numbering and organization of the host, c. 60.

Army-List, cc. 61-88.

Infantry, cc. 61-83.

Cavalry, cc. 84-88.

Navy-List, cc. 89-99.

Review, c. 100.

Dialogue: Xerxes and Demaratos, cc. 101-104.

Maskames of Doriskos, cc. 105, 106.

Boges of Eion, c. 107.

6. From Doriskos to Akanthos, cc. 108-121.

(1) Doriskos to the Strymon, cc. 108-114.

Sacrifice at Nine Ways, c. 114.

(2) The Strymon to Akanthos, cc. 115-121.

The King's Alliance with Akanthos, c. 117.

Cost of the King's entertainment, cc. 118-120.

Bon mot of Megakreon of Abdera, c. 120.

Note on the order of march from Doriskos to Akanthos, c. 121.

7. From Akanthos to Therme, cc. 122-127.

The Fleet, cc. 122, 123.

The Army, cc. 124-126.

Encampment at Therme, c. 127.

The text, so far analyzed, though obviously saturated in Greek media, is yet in the main Persian history, an account and description of the project and movement for the conquest of [p. xxiii] Hellas wholly from the Persian side. A great deal of the material, for example the geographical notes and descriptions, which are copious and precise, is presumably of purely Hellenic provenience. The origin of various anecdotes, bons mots, speeches, and similar items is disputable; and even the scenes laid in Susa have a suspiciously Greek colour. But, irrespective of origin, and from the simple standpoint of the analyst, the subject matter so far is all, with trifling exceptions, so to speak, Persian history, a description of Persian institutions, affairs and persons. The exact point to which it is worth while to carry analysis of this kind may be disputed: the Analysis above given is over minute for some purposes, and not minute enough for others; but, at any rate, on the general character and main divisions of the subject matter there is not much room for discussion. Before, however, this obviously Persian Logos makes way for a no less obviously Hellenic Logos, its counterpart and parallel, we have to face a passage of ambiguous and transitional character. It is a medley of complex and even miscellaneous content. The historical value and provenience of the items are almost as much in doubt as their occurrence just in this place is perplexing from the point of view of the literary composition. The problems raised by this passage cannot be resolved until the questions of the Sources, Composition, and Genesis of the work have been stated and answered; meanwhile the passage has been reckoned to the first main division of the Book, because a fresh section clearly begins with c. 138.

Appendix to Part I. (of Book 7).

P. 1. The king's visit to Tempe }

2. The geography of Thessaly }cc. 128-130.

3. The pause in Pieria, and the return of the Heralds, c. 131 (cp. c. 32).

G. 4. List of medizing Hellenes: the oath of the Patriots, c. 132.

5. Why no heralds were sent to Athens and Sparta, c. 133.

6. Story of the Wrath of Talthybios, cc. 134-137.

This Appendix may be taken to ease the scene-shifting between Part I. and Part II. in this Book; but Herodotus does not by any means employ such transitions as essential in his composition, and the items contained in this Appendix generate each and all grave historical difficulties, the last item, the story of the Wrath of Talthybios, involving the fundamental [p. xxiv] problem of the date and history of the composition. Unless the whole Book was written after the outbreak of the Peloponnesian war, the close of this passage at least must have been an insertion, among the very last, from the author's own hand. It is, indeed, expressly marked as a digression by his own words. It will hereafter (cp. 9 infra) be shown that the stratification of this passage is probably the result of more than one later deposit, and that a somewhat complex theory of the composition of the work must be invoked in order to solve the given problem.

To resume analysis:

Part II. PREPARATIONS OF THE GREEKS, cc. 138-178.

Attitude of the Greek states, c. 138.

The case of Athens, cc. 139-144.

The Historian's verdict, c. 139.

The Delphic Responses, cc. 140-144.

The services of Themistokles, cc. 143, 144.

Congress of patriotic states: the programme, c. 145.

Spies to Sardes, cc. 146, 147.

Negotiations with Argos, cc. 148-152.

Sicily, cc. 153-167.

Korkyra, c. 168.

Krete, cc. 169-171.

Thessaly, cc. 172-174.

The plan adopted: to defend Thermopylai, cc. 175-177.

Topography of Artemision-Thermopylai, c. 176.

Occupation of the line, c. 177.

Delphic oracle, on the wind, c. 178.

On this whole passage three observations may at present suffice. First, (1) the passage on Sikelian affairs (τὰ ἀπὸ Σικελίης) resolves itself clearly into four sub-divisions: (a) Origin and rise of Gelon, cc. 153-156; (b) Interview of the Greek ambassadors with Gelon, cc. 157-162, a passage containing six speeches, toti<*>em verbis; (c) The mission of Kadmos, cc. 163, 164; (d) The Sikeliote variant on the main theme, cc. 165-167. Again, (2) the passage on Krete contains an explicit digression (παρενθήκη) in a note on the defeat of the Tarantines by the Messapian Iapygians (τὰ κατὰ Ῥηγίνους τε καὶ Ταραντίνους). Finally, (3) the passage on Thessaly (cc. 172-174) is of a special significance, as it records the decision of the Confederate Greeks in the first instance to include Thessaly in their line of defence, and the actual despatch of a large force to realize this plan, adopted only to be abandoned. The military and historical [p. xxv] aspects of this story must be reserved for discussion (cp. Appendix IV. 6, 7). From this analytical point of view it is worth while to observe that the projected defence of Thessaly makes the king's encampment at Therme, c. 127, doubly suitable as the point at which to mark the finale of the first section of the Book, which carries the Persian from the capital of his Empire to the natural frontier of free Hellas.

The story of the mere antecedents and preparations of the struggle is herewith ended, and the story of the actual operations, the invader now in touch with the invaded, is about to begin. But this fact rather complicates than simplifies the practical problem of composition for our author. He has henceforward to deal with a double series of synchronous and more or less interrelated operations, those by sea and those by land, and he has to show himself equally at home among the Greek as among the Persian forces. He solves the problem in the main henceforth by a regular scene-shifting from sea to land, and from land to sea, coupled with an equally regular but more rapidly recurring alternation of the standpoint from the side of the Persian to the side of the Greek, and from the Greek back to the Persian side. When things come to close quarters, to actual blows, the story is told mainly from the Greek standpoint, as correspondents or reporters attached to Greek forceshad such fire-bringers (πυρφόροι) been then procurablemight have told the story. The results of this method are not altogether happy. The operations by sea and by land are divorced, at least in some situations, unduly from each other, by the literary practice; the literary result itself obtains, for considerable passages, somewhat of the mechanical beat of a pendulum; and the crucial or climacteric moments are nevertheless presented in somewhat one-sided a fashion. Yet the superficial aspect of the narrative is not deficient in variety. Herodotus is so rich a master of anecdote, asides, anticipations, reflexions, anachronisms, and all the ancillary devices of story-telling, that his work never presents the bald mechanics of a chronicle, the bare bones of mere annalism. In the subsequent tables the alternations above described will be indicated by appropriate letters. P=Persian side; G=Greek side; A=Army; N=Navy. An H indicates some extensive or noteworthy reflexion by the historian; other digressions, or excursuses, are marked as such.

Part III. (or II.²). ACTUAL OPERATIONS, cc. 175 ff.

A. PERSIANS AND GREEKS AT SEA.

PN. (cc. 188-195). The King's Fleet advances from Therme to Magnesia, cc. 179-183.

H. Estimate of the maxima of the King's Forces, cc. 184-187.

PN. The Storm, cc. 188-191 (Athenian Logos, c. 189).

GN. (Retreat, c. 183, and) Return of the Greek Fleet to Artemision, c. 192.

PN. Movement of Persian Fleet to Aphetai, cc. 193, 196.

GN. Capture of fifteen ships by the Greeks, cc. 194, 195.

Pause: Anecdote of Sandokes, c. 194.

At this point the story of naval operations is abandoned, not to be resumed until the story of Thermopylai is complete.

III. B. THE STORY OF THERMOPYLAI, cc. 196-239.

PA. (cc. 196-201). Advance of Xerxes and the Army to Trachis,, cc. 196-201.

Xerxes in Thessaly: Horse-races, c. 196.

in Achaia: the House of Athamas, c. 197.

in Malis: Topography, cc. 198-200.

The Persians face to face with the Greeks, c. 201.

GA. The Greeks at Thermopylai, cc. 202-207.

Army-List, c. 202.

Manifesto, c. 203.

Leonidas: his pedigree, c. 204.

Why there were Thebans at Thermopylai, c. 205.

Why more Peloponnesians were not at Thermopylai, c. 206.

Alarm of the Greeks: divided councils, c. 207.

PA. Reconnaissance (Persian), c. 208.

Xerxes and Demaratos, c. 209.

GP. The three days' engagements at Thermopylai, cc. 210-225.

First day, cc. 210, 211.

Second day, c. 212.

Third day, cc. 213-225.

(P, 213-218) The treachery of Epialtes, cc. 213-214.

The march of Hydarnes, cc. 215-218.

(G, 219-222) Portents and news, c. 219.

Devotion of Leonidas, Megistias, cc. 220, 221.

Departure of the Greeks, save Lakedaimonians, Thespians, Thebans, c. 222.

G. The third day's fighting, cc. 223-225

Excursus. The Spartan Aristeia, cc. 226-227.

The Monuments and Epitaphs, c. 228.

Aristodemos the coward, cc. 229-232.

Case of the Thebans, c. 233.

PA. After the battle, cc. 234-238.

Xerxes and Demaratos: further plans, cc. 234-237.

Review of the dead: the corpse of Leonidas, c. 238.

Colophon, or Pause: Anecdote of Gorgo, c. 239.

The bald analysis of the passage displays a great variety of materials, and presumes a large number of sources laid under contribution for the composition of so complex a record. A chronological indication at the close of c. 233 suggests that the case of the Thebans is a late addition, unless indeed the whole composition is to be dated to the opening years of the Peloponnesian war. The Colophon, or pause, gained by the insertion of an anecdote, such as that on Gorgo, is entirely in Herodotus' manner; but only too good reason can be found for doubting the authenticity of the passage, which in any case will hardly have formed a constituent of the first draft of the work.