INTRODUCTION

Characteristic and Analysis of Bk. 8

The eighth Book deals predominantly, though not quite exclusively, with naval affairs. Except for (1) the advance of the Persian army through central Greece (cc. 26-39), including the assault on Delphi; (2) the siege and capture of the Athenian Akropolis (cc. 51-55); (3) the notice of the fortification of the Isthmos by the Peloponnesians (cc. 71-73); (4) the retreat of Xerxes and Mardonios to Sardes and to Thessaly respectively (cc. 113-120); (5) the operations of Artabazos in the north (cc. 126-129); (6) the mission of Mys to the oracles (cc. 133-135); and (7) of Alexander to Athens (cc. 136-144), the affairs narrated concern the fleets and the operations at sea, and the scenes may be said to be all laid on the water. Even where for a few other moments we land, with the author, as on the shore of Salamis (c. 49 κτλ.), or the plain of Thria (c. 65), at Phaleron (c. 67), or for the award of the Aristeia, and so forth (cc. 121-125), the episodes are all closely related, as antecedents or consequents, to the naval operations. Thus, as a whole, the eighth Book has a certain unity in itself, arising from the predominantly naval interest, until this interest is lost at the close (cc. 133 ff.). Chronological coherence, too, the narrative possesses for the greater part of the Book, albeit this element of unity becomes obscure and problematic, with the winter following the [p. xxviii] battle of Salamis (after c. 121). On the whole, however, the Book forms a sort of unity in itself, by its subject and the chronological sequence of the narrative, and has, after a fashion, a beginning, a middle, and an end. The middle is clearly supplied by the stories of Salamis; and taking Salamis as the key to our analysis, the Book may be divided into three main sections

I. Before Salamis, cc. 1-39.

II. Salamis, cc. 40-96.

III. After Salamis, cc. 97-144.

Of these sections the first is considerably the shortest, and the third the longest; but it may be worth while to observe that, if from the third section the latter portion (cc. 133-144) be detached as essentially belonging to the operations of Mardonios and the land forces in the coming campaign, the middle and core of the Book would have before and after it two passages, or sections, of almost exactly equal length (cc. 1-39, 97-132), and would form in that case a very nicely balanced whole.

The first part or section of the Book further subdivides very clearly into two distinct sub-sections, or main chapters:

I. The Story of Artemision, cc. 1-25.

II. The Persian Army in Central Greece, cc. 26-39.

Each of these sub-sections invites further subdivision as follows:

I. THE STORY OF ARTEMISION, cc. 1-25.

Preliminary: 1. The Greek Navy: Contingents, c. 1.

Command, c. 2.

Previous question of the Hegemonia, c. 3.

2. The craft of Themistokles. Panic of the Greeks stayed by bribery and corruption, cc. 4, 5.

THE THREE DAYS' FIGHTING, cc. 6-22.

First day: The Barbarians' plan, cc. 6, 7.

Skyllias and his warning, cc. 8, 9.

The first naval engagement, cc. 10, 11.

Storm: depression in the Persian Fleet, c. 12.

wreck of the squadron off Euboia, c. 13.

Second day: Greek fleet reinforced and encouraged; second engagement: destruction of Kilikian vessels, c. 14.

Third day: Third engagement, cc. 15-17.

(Athenian Aristeia.)

After the battle: Council of war, c. 18.

Fate of the Euboians, c. 19; prognosticated by Bakis, c. 20.

Disaster at Thermopylai announced: retreat of the Fleet, c. 21.

The plan (c. 19) and inscriptions of Themistokles, c. 22.

Fourth day: Advance of the King's Fleet to Artemision, c. 23.

Visit of the naval forces to Thermopylai, cc. 24-25.

A bon mot: the prize of virtue, c. 26.

Such is a bare analysis of the whole passage on the naval operations between Aphetai and Artemision, as presented by Herodotus. Whether the items are recorded in true perspective and chronological order, and whether the outline of events is historically acceptable, are questions to be here postponed. But one remark may be made affecting the merely literary presentation. Obviously the story of the naval operations, although resumed from Book 7 c. 196, where it has given place for a time to the story of Thermopylai, yet here is treated as a substantive and independent story, with something like a fresh introduction: a literary device which certainly tends to obscure the material relations between the operations at Thermopylai and the operations off Artemision. The story is closed characteristically with a bon mot, which, however, is obviously intended to apply as much to Leonidas and his men as to the naval forces; the preceding chapters have just reunited the Persian forces by the visit of the naval arm to Thermopylai to inspect the evidences of the King's victory on land. Thus a distinct pause in the story is marked by the anecdote in c. 26, and an occasion gained for a distinct move forwards with the land forces in the following passage. The pause is, moreover, augmented by an excursus, or digression, on the Feud between the Thessalians and Phokians (cc. 27-30), which, though connected with the matter immediately in hand, the further advance of the Persians in central Greece, yet harks back to events some few years before the King's expedition, and preserves fortunately some details valuable in themselves, though quite unconnected with the immediate subject.

ii. THE PERSIAN ARMY IN CENTRAL GREECE, cc. 26-39.

Excursus. On the origin of the Thessalo-Phokian feud, and two recent disasters to the Thessalians, cc. 27-30.

Advance of the king's army through Doris, c. 31, Phokis, c. 32, into Boiotia, c. 33 (cp. c. 50 infra).

The attack on Delphi: a miraculous preservation, cc. 34-39.

Herodotus here leaves the King and his army in Boiotia, in order to resume the main argument, to wit the operations on sea, which are to culminate at Salamis. The further movements of the army are introduced in the subsequent narrative, at least until the discomfiture of the King's fleet, as ancillary and subordinate to the naval operations. It may be open to question where exactly the next main section of the Book should be terminated most conveniently, and most in accordance with the inner principles, or instinct, governing the author's composition; but that something of a new start is made with c. 40 is hardly to be denied.

II. SALAMIS, cc. 40-96.

Preliminaries, cc. 40-69.

G¹N. The Greek Fleet at Salamis, c. 40.

Evacuation of Attica, portent of the snake, c. 41.

Navy-List, cc. 42-48.

Council of war, c. 49.

P¹A. Arrival of the King at Athens, c. 50.

Siege and capture of the Akropolis, cc. 51-53.

The Athenian exiles on the Akropolis: portent of the olive, cc. 54, 55.

G²N. Council of war at Salamis: decision to retire, c. 56.

Themistokles and Mnesiphilos, c. 57.

Themistokles and Eurybiades, c. 58.

Council of war at Salamis: decision to remain, cc. 59-63.

Themistokles, c. 60, Adeimantos, c. 61, Themistokles, c. 62.

Invocation of the Aiakidai, c. 64.

The Eleusinian Portent (Dikaios, Demaratos), c. 65.

P²N Advance of the King's Fleet from Histiaia (cp. c. 25) to Phaleron, c. 66.

H. Losses and gains.

The King's Council of war, cc. 67-69.

Decision to do battle.

The exact period, the number of days elapsing from the arrival of the Greek Fleet at Salamis, c. 40, to the decision of the King to do battle by sea, c. 69, is not marked or indicated by Herodotus; and, as will be shown elsewhere, the passage just analyzed cannot be regarded as giving a true perspective or [p. xxxi] chronology of the events, for example, of the Greek councils of war. But the passage next in order must be taken as expressly presenting the events of the day and night before the battle, with the usual alternation from side to side, and the narrative then passes at once into the description of the actual battle, such as it is. The Analysis follows these diarial indications, as above for Thermopylai and for Artemision.

SALAMIS: THE DAY BEFORE THE BATTLE, cc. 70-82.

P¹. (First) Movement of the King's Fleet and Army, c. 70.

Aside: Fortification and defence of the Isthmos, cc. 71, 72.

Excursus: Ethnology of the Peloponnesos, c. 73.

G¹. Meeting or Council in the Greek camp at Salamis, c. 74.

The (first) mission of Sikinnos, c. 75.

P². The Persian occupation of Psyttaleia: fresh (or further) movement of the King's Fleet, c. 76.

Digression: An oracle of Bakis, c. 77.

G². Debate of the Greek Strategoi in Council, cc. 78-81.

Arrival of Aristeides: Aristeides and Themistokles, cc. 79, 80.

Aristeides and the Council, c. 81.

Arrival of the Tenians, c. 82.

THE DAY OF BATTLE, cc. 83-96.

i. The speech of Themistokles, c. 83.

ii. The advance: Athenian and Aiginetan variants, c. 84.

iii. Greek exploits on the Persian side: Samian Aristeia, c. 85.

iv. General aspect of the battle (Athenian, Aiginetan), c. 86.

v. Exploit of Artemisia of Halikarnassos, cc. 87, 88.

vi. Losses on the Persian side, c. 89.

vii. Fate of certain Phoenicians, c. 90.

viii. Exploits of the Aiginetans, c. 91.

ix. Themistokles and Polykritos (of Aigina), c. 92

x. The Aristeia (Aiginetan, Athenian), c. 93.

xi. Athenian scandal against Adeimantos and the Korinthians, c. 94.

xii. Exploit of Aristeides, on Psyttaleia, c. 95.

Colophon: Bakis again, c. 96.

Even this Analysis may fairly suggest that the account given by Herodotus of the great battle dissolves into a mere spray or broken succession of items and episodes, without much of argument or unity, strategic or literary, underlying it. This character of obscurity continues to rest upon the ensuing passage, in particular the chronological indications, apparently so firm for the day of battle and the preceding day, relapse into the vague. [p. xxxii] The Persian Fleet may have fled from Salamis on the evening, or night, following the battle; but, in the text of Herodotus, this movement is not recorded until (c. 107) after deliberations, digressions and excursuses in the text, which seem to suggest an appreciable lapse of time. At least all unity centred on Salamis has disappeared with the notice of the oracle, which serves as a colophon to the account of the battle: and these observations further justify the lines of the present Analysis.

III. AFTER SALAMIS, cc. 97-end.

Immediate sequel (cc. 97-107).

P¹. Xerxes meditates flight: begins building a mole, c. 97.

Excursus: The Persian Postal service (ἀγγαρήιον), c. 98.

Reception of the news of defeat in Susa, c. 99.

Proposals of Mardonios, c. 100.

Artemisia's advice to the King, cc. 100-1.

Artemisia charged with the conveyance of the King's bastards, c. 103.

Digression: Story of Hermotimos, or the Eunuch's Revenge, cc. 104-106.

Departure of the King's Fleet, c. 107.

The reputation of Themistokles (cc. 108-112).

G¹. Greek pursuit, as far as Andros, cc. 108-112.

Themistokles and the Peloponnesians, c. 108.

Themistokles and the Athenians, c. 109.

Themistokles and the King: (second) mission of Sikinnos, c. 110.

Themistokles and the Andrians, c. 111.

Themistokles and the other Nesiotes, c. 112.

The flight of Xerxes (cc. 113-120).

P². Xerxes' retreat to Thessaly: Mardonios' Levy, c. 113.

Recompense for Leonidas demanded (Delphi), c. 114.

Xerxes' retreat from Thessaly to Sardes, cc. 115-117.

Sufferings of the Army: the King of the Bisaltai.

Alternative story of the return of Xerxes, cc. 118-120:

H. disapproved by Herodotus.

The award of the prizes (cc. 121-125).

G². Failure at Andros: Karystos harried, c. 121.

Return to Salamis: division of the spoil, ib.

Thank-offerings: Delphi and Aigina, c. 122.

At the Isthmos: non-award of Aristeia, c. 123

Themistokles in Sparta, c. 124.

Bon mot: a retort by Themistokles, c. 125

Again a pause in the composition, the construction, is [p. xxxiii] reached, and marked by an anecdote, a bon mot, though it is plainly a subordinate pause. Yet to some extent a new chronological point rises in the next ensuing passage, together with a complete change in the scene, and in the chief actors. The events next recorded belong to the winter and spring that succeeded the battle of Salamis.

AFTER SALAMIS, continued.

The winter's tale (cc. 126-130).

P³. A. Artabazos with 60,000 men, after escorting the King, operates in Chalkidike: siege of Poteidaia, cc. 126-129.

N. Persian Fleet winters at Kyme and Samos: rendezvous at Samos in the spring, c. 130.

The Spring of the year (cc. 131, 132).

G³. N. Spring (of 479 B.C.). Rendezvous at Aigina of the Greek Fleet (110 in number) under Leotychidas, c. 131: his pedigree, ib.

Application of the Ionians (1) at Sparta, (2) at Aigina: advance of the Greek Fleet to Delos.

This passage supplies the last word on the Greek fleet, or on the naval affairs, which have bulked so largely throughout this Book, until the story is taken up again from this point in Book 9 c. 90. The remaining portion of this Book deals with acts and negotiations in Greece, directly preliminary to the land-campaign of Mardonios in the following year, or rather in the same year, judging from the standpoint gained in 8. 132. Whether there is a chronological relapse, or overlap, in consequence, between the two sections cc. 126-132 on the one part, and cc. 133-144 on the other, is a fair question, but concerns rather the historical criticism than the literary analysis of the passage. It is more important in the present connexion to observe the complete change of subject, scene, actors and interest in the passage next ensuing, and its complete coherence with the first Part of the ninth Book.

AFTER SALAMIS, continued.

The intrigues of Mardonios (cc. 133-136).

P⁴. Mission of Mys (by Mardonios) to consult the Oracles, cc. 133-135.

Mission of Alexander (by Mardonios) to seduce Athens, c. 136.

Digression: Origin of the Makedonian Monarchy, cc. 137-139.

The Temptation of Athens (cc. 140-144).

G⁴. Alexander at Athens: his speech, c. 140.

The Lakedaimonians at Athens: speech, cc. 141, 142.

Reply of the Athenians to Alexander, c. 143.

Reply of the Athenians to the Lakedaimonians, c. 144.

The foregoing analysis may be taken at least to demonstrate the closeness and consequence in the structure, in the texture, so to speak, of this Book, down to a certain point (c. 125). But that the war involved a double set of operations, by land as well as by sea, the chronological sequence of the narrative were unbroken, except for the passage of the Historian from the Persian side to the Greek and back again. The digressional and discursive element is relatively insignificant in the eighth Book of Herodotus. Apart from mere asides, or anecdotes en passant, there are but five separable excursuses in this Book, and two of these are mere notes, occupying small space. (1) The Ethnography of the Peloponnesos, c. 73, is hardly called for in the given context, but (2) the note on the Persian Postal Service, c. 98, startles the reader only by its tardy appearance. (3) The account of the causes of the Thessalian hostility to the Phokians, cc. 27, 28, is fairly, if not fully justifiable, in its immediate setting, while (4) the story of the Eunuch's Revenge, cc. 105, 106, though out of place, is a story after Herodotus' own heart. Far the most considerable excursus is (5) that on the Makedonian Royal House (c. 137), which, as foretold and promised in 5. 22, has a special bearing on the problems of the composition and construction of the work, as a whole.