AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES
Attributive and Predicate Adjectives
Adjectives are either Attributive or Predicate.
1. An Attributive Adjective simply qualifies its noun without the intervention of a verb or participle, expressed or implied: as, bonus impertor, a good commander; stellae lcidae, bright stars; verbum Graecum, a Greek word. [p. 171]
2. All other adjectives are called Predicate Adjectives:
stellae lcidae erant, the stars were bright.
sit Scpi clrus (Cat. 4.21), let Scipio be illustrious.
homins mts reddidit (Inv. 1.2), has rendered men mild.
tria praedia Capitn propria trduntur (Rosc. Am. 21), three farms are handed over to Capito as his own.
cnsilium cprunt plnum sceleris (id. 28), they formed a plan full of villany.
NOTE.A predicate adjective may be used with sum or a copulative verb ( 283); it may have the construction of a predicate accusative after a verb of naming, calling, or the like ( 393. N.); or it may be used in apposition like a noun ( 282. b).
Rules of Agreement
Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree with their nouns in Gender, Number, and Case:
vir fortis, a brave man.
illa mulier, that woman.
urbium mgnrum, of great cities.
cum ducents mlitibus, with two hundred soldiers.
impertor victus est, the general was beaten.
sectae sunt tempestts, storms followed.
NOTE.All rules for the agreement of adjectives apply also to adjective pronouns and to participles.
With two or more nouns the adjective is regularly plural, but often agrees with the nearest (especially when attributive):
Nsus et Euryalus prm (Aen. 5.294), Nisus and Euryalus first.
Caesaris omn et grti et opibus fruor (Fam. 1.9.21), I enjoy all Csar's favor and resources.
NOTE.An adjective referring to two nouns connected by the preposition cum is occasionally plural (synesis, 280. a): as,Iuba cum Labin capt (B. Afr. 52), Juba and Labienus were taken.
A collective noun may take an adjective of a different gender and number agreeing with the gender and number of the individuals implied (synesis, 280. a):
pars certre part (Aen. 5.108), a part ready to contend.
colniae aliquot dductae, Prsc Latn appellt (Liv. 1.3), several colonies were planted (led out) [of men] called Old Latins.
multitd convict sunt (Tac. Ann. 15.44), a multitude were convicted.
mgna pars raptae (id. 1.9), a large part [of the women] were seized.
NOTE.A superlative in the predicate rarely takes the gender of a partitive genitive by which it is limited: as,vlcissimum animlium delphnus est (Plin. N. H. 9.20), the dolphin is the swiftest [creature] of creatures. [p. 172]
One adjective may belong in sense to two or more nouns of different genders. In such cases,
1. An Attributive Adjective agrees with the nearest noun:
multae operae ac labris, of much trouble and toil.
vta mrsque me, my life and character.
s rs, s vir, s tempus llum dgnum fuit (Mil. 19), if any thing, if any man, if any time was fit.
2. A Predicate Adjective may agree with the nearest noun, if the Nouns form one connected idea:
factus est strepitus et admurmurti; (Verr. 1.45), a noise of assent was made (noise and murmur).
NOTE.This is only when the copula agrees with the nearest subject ( 317. c).
3. But generally, a Predicate Adjective will be masculine, if nouns of different genders mean living beings; neuter, if things without life:
uxor deinde ac lber amplex (Liv. 2.40), then his wife and children embraced him.
labor (M.) voluptsque (F.) societte qudam inter s ntrl sunt incta (N.) (id. 5.4), labor and delight are bound together by a certain natural alliance.
4. If nouns of different genders include both living beings and things without life, a Predicate Adjective is sometimes masculine (or feminine), sometimes neuter, and sometimes agrees in gender with the nearest if that is plural:
rx rgiaque classis n profect (Liv. 21.50), the king and the royal fleet set out together.
ntr inimca sunt lbera cvits et rx (id. 44.24), by nature a free state and a king are hostile.
lgts sortsque rcul exspectands (id. 5.15), that the ambassadors and the replies of the oracle should be waited for.
Two or more abstract nouns of the same gender may have a Predicate Adjective in the neuter plural (cf. 289. c):
stultitia et temerits et inistitia ... sunt fugienda (Fin. 3.39), foliy, rashness, and injustice are [things] to be shunned.
Adjectives used Substantively
Adjectives are often used as Nouns (substantively), the masculine usually to denote men or people in general of that kind, the feminine women, and the neuter things: [p. 173]
|
omns, all men (everybody). |
omnia, all things (everything). |
|
mirs, ancestors.
|
minrs, descendants.
|
|
Rmn, Romans.
|
barbar, barbarians.
|
|
lberta, a freedwoman.
|
Sabnae, the Sabine wives.
|
| sapins, a sage (philosopher). |
amcus, a friend.
|
|
bon, the good (good people). |
bona, goods, property.
|
NOTE.The plural of adjectives, pronouns, and participles is very common in this use. The singular is comparatively rare except in the neuter ( 289. a, c) and in words that have become practically nouns.
Certain adjectives have become practically nouns, and are often modified by other adjectives or by the possessive genitive:
tuus vcnus proximus, your next-door neighbor.
propinqu cter, his other relatives.
meus aequlis, a man of my own age.
ius familiris Catilna (Har. Resp. 5), his intimate friend Catiline.
Leptae nostr familirissimus (Fam. 9.13.2), a very close friend of our friend Lepta.
When ambiguity would arise from the substantive use of an adjective, a noun must be added:
bon, the good; omnia, everything (all things); but,
potentia omnium rrum, power over everything.
Many adjectives are used substantively either in the singular or the plural, with the added meaning of some noun which is understood from constant association:
fricus [ventus], the southwest wind; Inurius [mnsis], January; vitulna [car], veal (calf's flesh); fera [bstia], a wild beast; patria [terra], the fatherland; Gallia [terra], Gaul (the land of the Gall); hberna [castra], winter quarters; trirmis [nvis], a three-banked galley, trireme; argentrius [faber], a silversmith; rgia [domus], the palace; Latnae [friae], the Latin festival.
NOTE.These adjectives are specific in meaning, not generic like those in 288. They include the names of winds and months ( 31).
For Nouns used as Adjectives, see 321. c.
For Adverbs used like Adjectives, see 321. d.
Neuter Adjectives are used substantively in the following special senses:
The neuter singular may denote either a single object or an abstract quality:
|
rapt vvere, to live by plunder.
|
in rid, on dry ground.
|
honestum, an honorable act, or virtue (as a quality).
opus est mtrt, there is need of haste. [Cf. impersonal passives 208. d.] [p. 174]
The neuter plural is used to signify objects in general having the quality denoted, and hence may stand for the abstract idea:
omns fortia laudant, all men praise bravery (brave things).
A neuter adjective may be used as an appositive or predicate noun with a noun of different gender (cf. 287. a):
trste lupus stabuls (Ecl. 3.80), the wolf [is] a grievous thing for the fold.
varium et mtbile semper fmina (Aen. 4.569), woman is ever a changing and fickle thing.
malum mihi vidtur esse mors (Tusc. 1.9), death seems to me to be an evil.
A neuter adjective may be used as an attributive or a predicate adjective with an infinitive or a substantive clause:
istuc ipsum nn esse (Tusc. 1.12), that very not to be.
hmnum est errre, to err is human.
aliud est errre Caesarem nlle, aliud nlle miserr; (Lig. 16), it is one thing to be unwilling that Csar should err, another to be unwilling that he should pity.
Adjectives with Adverbial Force
An adjective, agreeing with the subject or object, is often used to qualify the action of the verb, and so has the force of an adverb:
prmus vnit, he was the first to come (came first).
nllus dubit, I no way doubt.
laet audire, they were glad to hear.
erat Rmae frequns (Rosc. Am. 16), he was often at Rome.
srus in caelum redes (Hor. Od. 1.2.45), mayst thou return late to heaven.
Comparatives and Superlatives
Besides their regular signification (as in English), the forms of comparison are used as follows:
The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree of a quality: as,brevior, rather short; audcior, too bold.
The Superlative (of eminence) often denotes a very high degree of a quality without implying a distinct comparison: as,mns altissimus, a very high mountain.
NOTE.The Superlative of Eminence is much used in complimentary references to persons and may often be translated by the simple positive. [p. 175]
With quam, vel, or nus the Superlative denotes the highest possible degree:
quam plrim, as many as possible.
quam maxim potest (maxim quam potest), as much as can be.
vel minimus, the very least.
vir nus doctissimus, the one most learned man.
NOTE 1.A high degree of a quality is also denoted by such adverbs as admodum, vald, very, or by per or prae in composition ( 267. d. 1): as,vald malus, very bad= pessimus; permgnus, very great; praealtus, very high (or deep).
NOTE 2.A low degree of a quality is indicated by sub in composition: as,subrsticus, rather clownish, or by minus, not very; minim, not at all; parum, not enough; nn satis, not much.
NOTE 3.The comparative mirs (for mirs nt, greater by birth) has the special signification of ancestors; so minrs often means descendants.
For the Superlative with quisque, see 313. b. For the construction of a substantive after a Comparative, see 406, 407; for that of a clause, see 535. c, 571. a. For the Ablative of Degree of Difference with a Comparative (mult etc.), see 414.
When two qualities of an object are compared, both adjectives are in the Comparative:
longior quam ltior acis erat (Liv. 27.48), the line was longer than it was broad (or, rather long than broad).
vrior quam grtior (id. 22.38), more true than agreeable.
NOTE.So also with adverbs: as,libentius quam vrius (Mil. 78), with more freedom than truth.
Where magis is used, both adjectives are in the positive:
disertus magis quam sapins (Att. 10.1.4), eloquent rather than wise.
clr magis quam honest (Iug. 8), more renowned than honorable.
NOTE.A comparative and a positive, or even two positives, are sometimes connected by quam. This use is rarer and less elegant than those before noticed:
clrs miribus quam vetusts (Tac. Ann. 4.61), of a family more famous than old.
vehementius quam caut (Tac. Agr. 4), with more fury than good heed.
Superlatives (and more rarely Comparatives) denoting order and successionalso medius, [cterus], reliquususually designate not what object, but what part of it, is meant:
summus mns, the top of the hill.
in ultim plate, at the end of the place.
prior cti, the earlier part of an action.
reliqu captv, the rest of the prisoners.
in colle medi (B. G. 1.24), half way up the hill (on the middle of the hill).
inter cteram plnitiem (Iug. 92), in a region elsewhere level.
NOTE.A similar use is found in sr (mult) nocte, late at night, and the like. But medium viae, the middle of the way; multum di, much of the day, also occur. [p. 176]
PRONOUNS
[294] A Pronoun indicates some person or thing without either naming or describing it. Pronouns are derived from a distinct class of roots, which seem to have denoted only ideas of place and direction ( 228. 2), and from which nouns or verbs can very rarely be formed. They may therefore stand for Nouns when the person or thing, being already present to the senses or imagination, needs only to be pointed out, not named.
Some pronouns indicate the object in itself, without reference to its class, and have no distinction of gender. These are Personal Pronouns. They stand syntactically for Nouns, and have the same construction as nouns.
Other pronouns designate a particular object of a class, and take the gender of the individuals of that class. These are called Adjective Pronouns. They stand for Adjectives, and have the same construction as adjectives.
Others are used in both ways; and, though called adjective pronouns, may also be treated as personal, taking, however, the gender of the object indicated.
In accordance with their meanings and uses, Pronouns are classified as follows:
| Personal Pronouns ( 295). |
Interrogative Pronouns ( 333). |
| Demonstrative Pronouns ( 296). |
Relative Pronouns ( 303). |
| Reflexive Pronouns ( 299). |
Indefinite Pronouns ( 309). |
| Possessive Pronouns ( 302). |
Personal Pronouns
The Personal Pronouns have, in general, the same constructions as nouns.
The personal pronouns are not expressed as subjects, except for distinction or emphasis:
t voc, I call you. But,
quis m vocat? ego t voc, who is calling me? I (emphatic) am calling you.
The personal pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that in -um being used partitively ( 346), and that in - oftenest objectively ( 348):
mior vestrum, the elder of you.
habtis ducem memorem vestr, obltum su; (Cat. 4.19), you have a leader who thinks (is mindful) of you and forgets (is forgetful of) himself.
pars nostrum, a part (i.e. some) of us.
NOTE 1.The genitives nostrum, vestrum, are occasionally used objectively ( 348): as,cupidus vestrum (Verr. 3.224), fond of you; csts vestrum (Cat. 3.29), the guardian of you (your guardian).
NOTE 2.One of themselves is expressed by nus ex sus or ipss (rarely ex s), or nus surum.
The Latin has no personal pronouns of the third person except the reflexive s. The want is supplied by a Demonstrative or Relative ( 296. 2, 308. f) [p. 177]
Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns are used either adjectively or substantively.
1. As adjectives, they follow the rules for the agreement of adjectives and are called Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives ( 286, 287):
hc proeli fact, after this battle was fought (this battle having been fought).
edem proeli, in the same battle.
ex es aedificis, out of those buildings.
2. As substantives, they are equivalent to personal pronouns. This use is regular in the oblique cases, especially of is:
Caesar et exercitus ius, Csar and his army (not suus). [But, Caesar exercitum suum dmsit, Csar disbanded his [own] army.]
s obsids ab es dentur (B. G. 1.14), if hostages should be given by them (persons just spoken of).
h sunt extr prvinciam trns Rhodanum prm; (id. 1.10), they (those just mentioned) are the first [inhabitants] across the Rhone.
ille minimum propter adulscentiam poterat (id. 1.20), he (emphatic) had very little power, on account of his youth.
An adjective pronoun usually agrees with an appositive or predicate noun, if there be one, rather than with the word to which it refers (cf. 306):
hc locus est nus qu perfugiant; hc portus, haec arx, haec ra socirum (Verr. 5.126), this is the only place to which they can flee for refuge; this is the haven, this the citadel, this the altar of the allies.
rrum caput hc erat, hc fns (Hor. Ep. 1.17.45), this was the head of things, this the source.
eam sapientiam interpretantur quam adhc mortlis nm est cnsectus [for id. ..quod] (Lael. 18), they explain that [thing] to be wisdom which no man ever yet attained.
The main uses of hc, ille, iste, and is are the following:
Hc is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place, or thought). It is hence called the demonstrative of the first person.
It is sometimes used of the speaker himself; sometimes for the latter of two persons or things mentioned in speech or writing; more rarely for the former, when that, though more remote on the written page, is nearer the speaker in time, place, or thought. Often it refers to that which has just been mentioned. [p. 178]
Ille is used of what is remote (in time, etc.); and is hence called the demonstrative of the third person.
It is sometimes used to mean the former; also (usually following its noun) of what is famous or well-known; often (especially the neuter illud) to mean the following.
Iste is used of what is between the two others in remoteness: often in allusion to the person addressed,hence called the demonstrative of the second person.
It especially refers to one's opponent (in court, etc.), and frequently implies antagonism or contempt.
Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others and is especially common as a personal pronoun. It does not denote any special object, but refers to one just mentioned, or to be afterwards explained by a relative. Often it is merely a correlative to the relative qu:
vnit mihi obviam tuus puer, is mihi litters abs t reddidit (Att. 2.1.1), your boy met me, he delivered to me a letter from you.
eum quem, one whom.
eum cnsulem qu nn dubitet (Cat. 4.24), a consul who will not hesitate.
The pronouns hc, ille, and is are used to point in either direction, back to something just mentioned or forward to something about to be mentioned.
The neuter forms often refer to a clause, phrase, or idea:
est illud quidem vel maximum, animum vidre (Tusc. 1.52), that is in truth a very great thing,to see the soul.
The demonstratives are sometimes used as pronouns of reference, to indicate with emphasis a noun or phrase just mentioned:
nllam virts aliam mercdem dsderat praeter hanc laudis (Arch. 28), virtue wants no other reward except that [just mentioned] of praise.
NOTE.But the ordinary English use of that of is hardly known in Latin. Commonly the genitive construction is continued without a pronoun, or some other construction is preferred:
cum e Simnids artem memoriae pollicrtur: oblvinis, inquit, mllem (Fin. 2.104), when Simonides promised him the art of memory, I should prefer, said he, [that] of forgetfulness.
Caesaris exercitus Pompins ad Pharslum vcit, the army of Csar defeated that of Pompey (the Pompeians) at Pharsalus.
The main uses of dem and ipse are as follows:
When a quality or act is ascribed with emphasis to a person or thing already named, is or dem (often with the concessive quidem) is used to indicate that person or thing: [p. 179]
per num servum et eum ex gladitri ld; (Att. 1.16.5), by means of a single slave, and that too one from the gladiatorial school.
vincula, et ea sempiterna (Cat. 4.7), imprisonment, and that perpetual.
Ti. Gracchus rgnum occupre cntus est, vel rgnvit is quidem paucs mnss (Lael. 41), Tiberius Gracchus tried to usurp royal power, or rather he actually reigned a few months.
NOTE.So rarely with ille: as,nunc dextr ingeminns icts, nunc ille sinistr (Aen. 5.457), now dealing redoubled blows with his right hand, now (he) with his left. [In imitation of the Homeric ὅ γε: cf. Aen. 5.334; 9.796.]
Idem, the same, is often used where the English requires an adverb or adverbial phrase (also, too, yet, at the same time):
rti splendida et grandis et eadem in prms facta (Brut. 273), an oration, brilliant, able, and very witty too.
cum [haec] dcat, negat dem esse in De grtiam (N. D. 1.121), when he says this, he denies also that there is mercy with God (he, the same man).
NOTE.This is really the same use as in a above, but in this case the pronoun cannot be represented by a pronoun in English.
The intensive ipse, self, is used with any of the other pronouns, with a noun, or with a temporal adverb for the sake of emphasis:
turpe mihi ips vidbtur (Phil. 1.9), even to me (to me myself) it seemed disgraceful.
id ipsum, that very thing; quod ipsum, which of itself alone.
in eum ipsum locum, to that very place.
tum ipsum (Off. 2.60), at that very time.
NOTE 1.The emphasis of ipse is often expressed in English by just, very, mere, etc.
NOTE 2.In English, the pronouns himself etc. are used both intensively (as, he will come himself) and reflexively (as, he will kill himself): in Latin the former would be translated by ipse, the latter by s or ss.
Ipse is often used alone, substantively, as follows:
1. As an emphatic pronoun of the third person:
idque re pblicae praeclrum, ipss glrisum (Phil. 2.27), and this was splendid for the state, glorious for themselves.
omns bon quantum in ipss fuit (id. 2.29), all good men so far as was in their power (in themselves).
d capit ipsus generque reservent (Aen. 8.484), may the gods hold in reserve [such a fate] to fall on his own and his son-in-law's head.
2. To emphasize an omitted subject of the first or second person:
vbscum ips recordmin; (Phil. 2.1), remember in your own minds (yourselves with yourselves).
3. To distinguish the principal personage from subordinate persons:
ipse dxit (cf. αὐτὸς ἔφα), he (the Master) said it.
Nmentnus erat super ipsum (Hor. S. 2.8.23), Nomentanus was above [the host] himself [at table]. [p. 180]
Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of a reflexive (see 300. b).
Ipse usually agrees with the subject, even when the real emphasis in English is on a reflexive in the predicate:
m ipse cnslor (Lael. 10), I console myself. [Not m ipsum, as the English would lead us to expect.]
Reflexive Pronouns
The Reflexive Pronoun (s), and usually its corresponding possessive (suus), are used in the predicate to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause:
s ex nv pricit (B. G. 4.25), he threw himself from the ship.
Dumnorgem ad s vocat (id. 1.20), he calls Dumnorix to him.
ss castrs tenbant (id. 3.24), they kept themselves in camp.
contemn s putant (Cat. M. 65), they think they are despised.
Caesar sus cpis subdcit (B. G. 1.22), Csar leads up his troops.
Caesar statuit sibi Rhnum esse trnseundum (id. 4.16), Csar decided that he must cross the Rhine (the Rhine must be crossed by himself).
For reflexives of the first and second persons the oblique cases of the personal pronouns (me, tu, etc.) and the corresponding possessives (meus, tuus, etc.) are used:
mort m obtul; (Mil. 94), I have exposed myself to death.
hinc t rgnae ad lmina perfer (Aen. 1.389), do you go (bear yourself) hence to the queen's threshold.
quid est quod tants ns in labribus exercemus (Arch. 28), what reason is there why we should exert ourselves in so great toils?
singuls vbs novns ex turms manipulsque vestr simils ligite (Liv. 21.54), for each of you pick out from the squadrons and maniples nine like yourselves.
In a subordinate clause of a complex sentence there is a double use of Reflexives.
1. The reflexive may always be used to refer to the subject of its own clause (Direct Reflexive):
idicr potest quantum habeat in s bon cnstantia (B. G. 1.40), it can be determined how much good firmness possesses (has in itself).
[Caesar] nluit eum locum vacre, n Germn sus fnibus trnsrent (id. 1.28), Csar did not wish this place to lie vacant, for fear the Germans would cross over from their territories.
s qua sgnificti virttis lceat ad quam s similis animus adplicet et adiungat (Lael. 48), if any sign of virtue shine forth to which a similar disposition may attach itself. [p. 181]
2. If the subordinate clause expresses the words or thought of the subject of the main clause, the reflexive is regularly used to refer to that subject (Indirect Reflexive):
petirunt ut sibi licret (B. G. 1.30), they begged that it might be allowed them (the petitioners).
Iccius nntium mittit, nisi subsidium sibi submitttur (id. 2.6), Iccius sends a message that unless relief be furnished him, etc.
decima legi e grtis git, quod d s optimum idicium fcisset (id. 1.41), the tenth legion thanked him because [they said] he had expressed a high opinion of them.
s obsids ab es (the Helvetians) sibi (Csar, who is the speaker) dentur, s (Csar) cum es pcem esse factrum (id. 1.14), [Csar said that] if hostages were given him by them he would make peace with them.
NOTE.Sometimes the person or thing to which the reflexive refers is not the grammatical subject of the main clause, though it is in effect the subject of discourse: Thus,cum ips de nihil minus grtum futrum sit quam nn omnibus patre ad s plcandum viam (Legg. 2.25), since to God himself nothing will be less pleasing than that the way to appease him should not be open to all men.
If the subordinate clause does not express the words or thought of the main subject, the reflexive is not regularly used, though it is occasionally found:
sunt ita mult ut es carcer capere nn possit (Cat. 2.22), they are so many that the prison cannot hold them. [Here s could not be used; so also in the example following.]
ibi in proxims vlls ita bipartt furunt, ut Tiberis inter es et pns interesset (id. 3.5), there they stationed themselves in the nearest farmhouses, in two divisions, in such a manner that the Tiber and the bridge were between them (the divisions).
nn fuit e contentus quod e praeter spem acciderat (Manil. 25), he was not content with that which had happened to him beyond his hope.
Compare: qu fit, Maecns, ut nm, quam sibi sortem seu rati dederit seu fors obicerit, ill contentus vvat (Hor. S. 1.1.1), how comes it, Mcenas, that nobody lives contented with that lot which choice has assigned him or chance has thrown in his way? [Here sibi is used to put the thought into the mind of the discontented man.]
Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of an indirect reflexive, either to avoid ambiguity or from carelessness; and in later writers is sometimes found instead of the direct reflexive:
cr d su virtte aut d ipsus dligenti dsprrent (B. G. 1.40), why (he asked) should they despair of their own courage or his diligence?
omnia aut ipss aut hosts popults (Q. C. 3.5.6), [they said that] either they themselves or the enemy had laid all waste. [Direct reflexive.] [p. 182]
qu s ex hs minus timids exstimr volbant, nn s hostem verr, sed angustis itineris et mgnitdinem silvrum quae intercderent inter ipss (the persons referred to by s above) atque Ariovistum ... timre dcbant (B. G. 1.39), those of them who wished to be thought less timid said they did not fear the enemy, but were afraid of the narrows and the vast extent of the forests which were between themselves and Ariovistus.
audstis nper dcere lgts Tyndaritns Mercurium qu sacrs anniversris apud es colertur esse subltum (Verr. 4.84), you have just heard the ambassadors from Tyndaris say that the statue of Mercury which was worshipped with annual rites among them was taken away. [Here Cicero wavers between apud es colbtur, a remark of his own, and apud s colertur, the words of the ambassadors. es does not strictly refer to the ambassadors, but to the peoplethe Tyndaritani.]
Special uses of the Reflexive are the following:
The reflexive in a subordinate clause sometimes refers to the subject of a suppressed main clause:
Paetus omns librs qus frter suus relquisset mihi dnvit (Att. 2.1), Ptus gave me all the books which (as he said in the act of donation) his brother had left him.
The reflexive may refer to any noun or pronoun in its own clause which is so emphasized as to become the subject of discourse:
Scratem cvs su interfcrunt, Socrates was put to death by his own fellowcitizens.
qu poterat sals sua cuiquam nn probr; (Mil. 81), how can any one fail to approve his own safety? [In this and the preceding example the emphasis is preserved in English by the change of voice.]
hunc s sect erunt su comits (Cat. 2.10), this man, if his companions follow him.
NOTE.Occasionally the clause to which the reflexive really belongs is absorbed: as,stude snre sibi ipss (Cat. 2.17), I am anxious to cure these men for their own benefit (i.e. ut sn sibi sint).
Suus is used for one's own as emphatically opposed to that of others, in any part of the sentence and with reference to any word in it:
sus flamms dlte Fdns (Liv. 4.33), destroy Fiden with its own fires (the fires kindled by that city, figuratively). [Cf. Cat. 1.32.]
The reflexive may depend upon a verbal noun or adjective:
su laus, self-praise.
habtis ducem memorem vestr, obltum su (Cat. 4.19), you have a leader mindful of you, forgetful of himself.
perdit homins cum su similibus servs (Phil. 1.5), abandoned men with slaves like themselves. [p. 183]
The reflexive may refer to the subject implied in an infinitive or verbal abstract used indefinitely:
contentum sus rbus esse maximae sunt dvitiae (Par. 51), the greatest wealth is to be content with one's own.
cui prposita sit cnservti su (Fin. 5.37), one whose aim is self-preservation.
Inter s (ns, vs), among themselves (ourselves, yourselves), is egularly used to express reciprocal action or relation:
inter s cnflgunt (Cat. 1.25), contend with each other.
inter s continentur (Arch. 2), are joined to each other.
Possessive Pronouns
The Possessive Pronouns are derivative adjectives, which take the gender, number, and case of the noun to which they belong, not those of the possessor:
haec rnmenta sunt mea (Val. 4.4), these are my jewels. [mea is neuter plural, though the speaker is a woman.]
me sunt rdins, mea dscrpti; (Cat. M. 59), mine are the rows, mine the arrangement. [mea is feminine, though the speaker is Cyrus.]
multa in nostr collgi praeclra (id. 64), [there are] many fine things in our college. [nostr is neuter singular, though men are referred to.]
Germn sus cpis castrs dxrunt (B. G. 1.51), the Germans led their troops out of the camp.
To express possession and similar ideas the possessive pronouns are regularly used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive pronouns ( 343. a):
domus mea, my house. [Not domus me.]
pater noster, our father. [Not pater nostr.]
patrimnium tuum, your inheritance. [Not tu.]
NOTE 1.Exceptions are rare in classic Latin, common in later writers. For the use of a possessive pronoun instead of an Objective Genitive, see 348. a.
NOTE 2.The Interrogative Possessive cius, -a, -um, occurs in poetry and early Latin: as,cium pecus (Ecl. 3.1), whose flock? The genitive cius is generally used instead.
The possessives have often the acquired meaning of peculiar to, favorable or propitious towards, the person or thing spoken of:
[petere] ut su clmenti ac mnsutdine ttur (B. G. 2.14), they asked (they said) that he would show his [wonted] clemency and humanity.
gnrant quem portum petat nllus suus ventus est (Sen. Ep. 71.3), to him who knows not what port he is bound to, no wind is fair (his own).
tempore tu pgnst; (Liv. 38.45.10), did you fight at a fit time?
NOTE.This use is merely a natural development of the meaning of the possessive, and the pronoun may often be rendered literally. [p. 184]
The possessives are regularly omitted (like other pronouns) when they are plainly implied in the context:
socium fraudvit, he cheated his partner. [socium suum would be distinctive, his partner (and not another's); suum socium, emphatic, his own partner.]
Possessive pronouns and adjectives implying possession are often used substantively to denote some special class or relation:
nostr, our countrymen, or men of our party.
sus continbat (B. G. 1.15), he held his men in check.
flamma extrma merum (Aen. 2.431), last flames of my countrymen.
Sulln, the veterans of Sulla's army; Pompin, the partisans of Pompey.
NOTE.There is no reason to suppose an ellipsis here. The adjective becomes a noun like other adjectives (see 288).
A possessive pronoun or an adjective implying possession may take an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, and case with an implied noun or pronoun:
me slus caus; (Ter. Heaut. 129), for my sake only.
in nostr omnium flt; (Mil. 92), amid the tears of us all.
ex Annin Milnis dom; (Att. 4.3.3), out of Annius Milo's house. [Equivalent to ex Ann Milnis dom.]
nostra omnium patria, the country of us all.
suum ipsus rgnum, his own kingdom.
For the special reflexive use of the possessive suus, see 299, 300.
Relative Pronouns
A Relative Pronoun agrees with some word expressed or implied either in its own clause, or (often) in the antecedent (demonstrative) clause. In the fullest construction the antecedent is expressed in both clauses, with more commonly a corresponding demonstrative to which the relative refers: as,iter in ea loca facere coepit, quibus in locs esse Germns audibat (B. G. 4.7), he began to march into those PLACES in which PLACES he heard the Germans were. But one of these nouns is commonly omitted.
The antecedent is in Latin very frequently (rarely in English) found in the relative clause, but more commonly in the antecedent clause.
Thus relatives serve two uses at the same time:
1. As Nouns (or Adjectives) in their own clause: as,e qu Alesiae obsdbantur (B. G. 7.77), those who were besieged at Alesia.
2. As Connectives: as,T. Balventius, qu superire ann prmum plum dxerat (id. 5.35), Titus Balventius, who the year before had been a centurion of the first rank.
When the antecedent is in a different sentence, the relative is often equivalent to a demonstrative with a conjunction: as,quae cum ita sint (=et cum ea ita sint), [and] since this is so.
The subordinating force did not belong to the relative originally, but was developed from an interrogative or indefinite meaning specialized by use. But the subordinating and the later connective force were acquired by qu at such an early period that the steps of the process cannot now be traced. [p. 185]
A Relative Pronoun indicates a relation between its own clause and some substantive. This substantive is called the Antecedent of the relative.
Thus, in the sentence
eum nihil dlectbat quod fs esset (Mil. 43), nothing pleased him which was right,
the relative quod connects its antecedent nihil with the predicate fs esset, indicating a relation between the two.
A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in Gender and Number; but its Case depends on its construction in the clause in which it stands:
ea dis quam cnstituerat vnit (B. G. 1.8), that day which he had appointed came.
pontem qu erat ad Genvam iubet rescind; (id. 1.7), he orders the bridge which was near Geneva to be cut down.
Aduatuc, d quibus supr dximus, domum revertrunt (id. 2.29), the Aduatuci, of whom we have spoken above, returned home.
NOTE.This rule applies to all relative words so far as they are variable in form: as, qulis, quantus, qucumque, etc.
If a relative has two or more antecedents, it follows the rules for the agreement of predicate adjectives ( 286, 287):
flium et fliam, qus vald dlxit, un tempore msit, he lost at the same time a son and a daughter whom he dearly loved.
grands nt mtrs et parvul lber, qurum utrrumque aets misericor, diam nostram requrit (Verr. 5.129), aged matrons and little children, whose time of life in each case demands our compassion.
tium atque dvitiae, quae prma mortls putant (Sall. Cat. 36), idleness and wealth, which men count the first (objects of desire).
eae frgs et frcts qus terra gignit (N. D. 2.37), those fruits and crops which the earth produces.
For the Person of the verb agreeing with the Relative, see 316. a.
A Relative generally agrees in gender and number with an appositive or predicate noun in its own clause, rather than with an antecedent of different gender or number (cf. 296. a):
mare etiam quem Neptnum esse dcbs (N. D. 3.52), the sea, too, which you said was Neptune. [Not quod.]
Thbae ipsae, quod Boetiae caput est (Liv. 42.44), even Thebes, which is the chief city of Botia. [Not quae.]
NOTE.This rule is occasionally violated: as,flmen quod appelltur Tamesis (B. G. 5.11), a river which is called the Thames. [p. 186]
A relative occasionally agrees with its antecedent in case (by attraction):
s aliquid ag erum qurum cnsust; (Fam. 5.14), if you should do something of what you are used to do. [For erum quae.]
NOTE.Occasionally the antecedent is attracted into the case of the relative: urbem quam statu vestra est (Aen. 1.573), the city which I am founding is yours. Naucratem, quem convenre volu, in nv nn erat (Pl. Am. 1009), Naucrates, whom I wished to meet, was not on board the ship.
A relative may agree in gender and number with an implied antecedent:
qurtum genus ... qu in vetere aere alin vacillant (Cat. 2.21), a fourth class, who are staggering under old debts.
nus ex e numer qu part erant (Iug. 35), one of the number [of those] who were ready.
conirvre pauc, d qu [i.e. conirtine] dcam (Sall. Cat. 18), a few have conspired, of which [conspiracy] I will speak.
NOTE.So regularly when the antecedent is implied in a possessive pronoun: as, nostra cta, qus tyranns vocs (Vat. 29), the deeds of us, whom you call tyrants. [Here qus agrees with the nostrum (genitive plural) implied in nostra.]
Antecedent of the Relative
The Antecedent Noun sometimes appears in both clauses, but usually only in the one that precedes. Sometimes it is wholly omitted.
The antecedent noun may be repeated in the relative clause:
loc ntra erat haec quem locum nostr dlgerant (B. G. 2.18), the nature of the ground which our men had chosen was this.
The antecedent noun may appear only in the relative clause, agreeing with the relative in case:
qus rs in cnsult nostr gessimus attigit hc versibus (Arch. 28), he has touched in verse the things which I did in my consulship.
quae prma innocentis mihi dfnsi est oblta suscp; (Sull. 92), I undertook the first defence of an innocent man that was offered me.
NOTE.In this case the relative clause usually comes first (cf. 308. d) and a lemonstrative usually stands in the antecedent clause:
quae pars cvittis calamittem popul Rmn intulerat, ea prnceps poens persolvit (B. G. 1.12), that part of the state which had brought disaster on the Roman people was the first to pay the penalty.
quae grtia currum fuit vvs, eadem sequitur (Aen. 6.653), the same pleasure that they took in chariots in their lifetime follows them (after death).
qu fit ut nm, quam sibi sortem rati dederit, ill contentus vvat (cf. Hor. S. 1.1.1), how does it happen that no one lives contented with the lot which choice has assigned him? [p. 187]
The antecedent may be omitted, especially if it is indefinite:
qu decimae leginis aquilam ferbat (B. G. 4.25), [the man] who bore the eagle of the tenth legion.
qu cgnscerent msit (id. 1.21), he sent [men] to reconnoitre.
The phrase id quod or quae rs may be used (instead of quod alone) to refer to a group of words or an idea:
[obtrecttum est] Gabni dcam anne Pompi? an utrqueid quod est vrius? (Manil. 57), an affront has been offeredshall I say to Gabinius or to Pompey? orwhich is truerto both?
multum sunt in vntinibus, quae rs vrs alit (B. G. 4.1), they spend much time in hunting, which [practice] increases their strength.
NOTE.But quod alone often occurs: as,Cassius noster, quod mihi mgnae voluptt fuit, hostem ricerat (Fam. 2.10), our friend Cassiuswhich was a great satisfaction to mehad driven back the enemy.
The antecedent noun, when in apposition with the main clause, or with some word of it, is put in the relative clause:
frm [amc], cius generis est mgna pnria (Lael. 62), steadfast friends, a class of which there is great lack (of which class there is, etc.).
A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) belonging to the antecedent may stand in the relative clause:
vsa ea quae pulcherrima apud eum vderat (Verr. 4.63), those most beautiful vessels which he had seen at his house. [Nearly equivalent to the vessels of which he had seen some very beautiful ones.]
Special Uses of the Relative
In the use of Relatives, the following points are to be observed:
The relative is never omitted in Latin, as it often is in English:
liber quem mihi dedist, the book you gave me.
is sum qu semper fu, I am the same man I always was.
e in loc est d qu tibi loctus sum, he is in the place I told you of.
When two relative clauses are connected by a copulative conjunction, a relative pronoun sometimes stands in the first and a demonstrative in the last:
erat profectus obviam leginibus Macedonics quattuor, qus sibi concilire pecni cgitbat esque ad urbem addcere (Fam. 12.23.2), he had set out to meet four legions from Macedonia, which he thought to win over to himself by a gift of money and to lead (them) to the city. [p. 188]
A relative clause in Latin often takes the place of some other construction in English,particularly of a participle, an appositive, or a noun of agency:
lgs quae nunc sunt, the existing laws (the laws which now exist).
Caesar qu Galliam vcit, Csar the conqueror of Gaul.
ista glria qu est frctus virttis (Pison. 57), true glory [which is] the fruit of virtue.
ille qu petit, the plaintiff (he who sues).
qu legit, a reader (one who reads).
In formal or emphatic discourse, the relative clause usually comes first, often containing the antecedent noun (cf. 307. b):
quae pars cvittis Helvtiae nsgnem calamittem popul Rmn intulerat, ea prnceps poens persolvit (B. G. 1.12), the portion of the Helvetian state which had brought a serious disaster on the Roman people was the first to pay the penalty.
NOTE.In colloquial language, the relative clause in such cases often contains a redundant demonstrative pronoun which logically belongs in the antecedent clause: as,ille qu cnsult cavet, ditin t bene licet partum bene (Plaut. Rud. 1240), he who is on his guard, he may long enjoy what he has well obtained.
The relative with an abstract noun may be used in a parenthetical clause to characterize a person, like the English such:
quae vestra prdentia est (Cael. 45), such is your wisdom. [Equivalent to pr vestr prdenti.]
audsss cmoeds vel lctrem vel lyristn, vel, quae mea lberlits, omns (Plin. Ep. 1.15), you would have listened to comedians, or a reader, or a lyre-player, orsuch is my liberalityto all of them.
A relative pronoun (or adverb) often stands at the beginning of an independent sentence or clause, serving to connect it with the sentence or clause that precedes:
Caesar statuit exspectandam classem; quae ubi convnit (B. G. 3.14), Csar decided that he must wait for the fleet; and when this had come together, etc.
quae qu audibant, and those who heard this (which things).
quae cum ita sint, and since this is so.
qurum quod simile factum (Cat. 4.13), what deed of theirs like this?
qu cum vnisset, and when he had come there (whither when he had come).
NOTE.This arrangement is common even when another relative or an interrogative follows. The relative may usually be translated by an English demonstrative, with or without and.
A relative adverb is regularly used in referring to an antecedent in the Locative case; so, often, to express any relation of place instead of the formal relative pronoun: [p. 189]
mortuus Cms qu s contulerat (Liv. 2.21), having died at Cum, whither he had retired. [Here in quam urbem might be used, but not in qus.]
locus qu aditus nn erat, a place to which (whither) there was no access.
rgna unde genus dcis (Aen. 5.801), the kingdom from which you derive your race.
unde petitur, the defendant (he from whom something is demanded).
The relatives qu, qulis, quantus, quot, etc. are often rendered simply by as in English:
idem quod semper, the same as always.
cum esset tlis qulem t esse vide; (Mur. 32), since he was such a man as I see you are.
tanta dmicti quanta numquam fuit (Att. 7.1.2), such a fight as never was before.
tot mala quot sdera (Ov. Tr. 1.5.47), as many troubles as stars in the sky.
The general construction of relatives is found in clauses introduced by relative adverbs: as, ubi, qu, unde, cum, qur.
Indefinite Pronouns
The Indefinite Pronouns are used to indicate that some person or thing is meant, without designating what one.
Quis, quispiam, aliquis, qudam, are particular indefinites, meaning some, a certain, any. Of these, quis, any one, is least definite, and qudam, a certain one, most definite; aliquis and quispiam, some one, stand between the two:
dxerit quis (quispiam), some one may say.
aliqu philosoph ita putant, some philosophers think so. [qudam would mean certain persons defined to the speaker's mind, though not named.]
habitant hc quaedam muliers pauperculae (Ter. Ad. 647), some poor women live here [i.e. some women he knows of; some women or other would be aliquae or nesci quae].
The indefinite quis is rare except in the combinations s quis, if any; nisi quis, if any ... not; n quis, lest any, in order that none; num quis (ecquis), whether any; and in relative clauses.
The compounds quispiam and aliquis are often used instead of quis after s, nisi, n, and num, and are rather more emphatic:
quid s hc quispiam voluit deus (Ter. Eun. 875), what if some god had desired this?
nisi alicui surum negtium daret (Nep. Dion. 8.2), unless he should employ some one of his friends.
cavbat Pompius omnia, n aliquid vs timrtis (Mil. 66), Pompey took every precaution, so that you might have no fear. [p. 190]
In a particular negative aliquis (aliqu), some one (some), is regularly used, where in a universal negative quisquam, any one, or llus, any, would be required:
istitia numquam nocet cuiquam (Fin. 1.50), justice never does harm to anybody. [alicui would mean to somebody who possesses it.]
nn sine aliqu met, not without some fear. But,sine ll met, without any fear.
cum aliquid nn habes (Tusc. 1.88), when there is something you have not.
NOTE.The same distinction holds between quis and aliquis on the one hand, and quisquam (llus) on the other, in conditional and other sentences when a negative is expressed or suggested:
s quisquam, ille sapins fuit (Lael. 9), if any man was (ever) a sage, he was.
dum praesidia lla furunt (Rosc. Am. 126), while there were any armed forces.
s quid in t peccv; (Att. 3.15.4), if I have done wrong towards you [in any particular case (see 310)].
Quvs or qulibet (any one you will), quisquam, and the corresponding adjective llus, any at all, are general indefinites.
Quvs and qulibet are used chiefly in affirmative clauses, quisquam and llus in clauses where a universal negative is expressed or suggested:
nn cuivs homin contingit adre Corinthum (Hor. Ep. 1.17.36), it is not every man's luck to go to Corinth. [nn cuiquam would mean not any man's.]
quemlibet modo aliquem (Acad. 2.132), anybody you will, provided it be somebody.
s quisquam est timidus, is ego sum (Fam. 6.14.1), if any man is timorous, I am he.
s tempus est llum ire hominis necand; (Mil. 9), if there is any occasion whatever when homicide is justifiable.
NOTE.The use of the indefinites is very various, and must be learned from the Lexicon and from practice. The choice among them may depend merely on the point of view of the speaker, so that they are often practically interchangeable. The differences are (with few exceptions) those of logic, not of syntax.
The distributives quisque (every), uterque (each of two), and nus quisque (every single one) are used in general assertions:
bonus liber melior est quisque qu mior (Plin. Ep. 1.20.4), the larger a good book is, the better (each good book is better in proportion, etc.).
amb exercits sus quisque abeunt doms (Liv. 2.7.1), both armies go away, every man to his home.
uterque utrque erat exercitus in cnspect; (B. G. 7.35), each army was in sight of the other (each to each).
pnite ante oculs num quemque rgum (Par. 1.11), set before your eyes each of the kings. [p. 191]
Quisque regularly stands in a dependent clause, if there is one:
qu quisque est sollertior, hc docet rcundius (Rosc. Com. 31), the keenerwitted a man is, the more impatiently he teaches.
NOTE.Quisque is generally postpositive
165 : as, suum cuique, to every man his own.
Quisque is idiomatically used with superlatives and with ordinal numerals:
nbilissimus quisque, all the noblest (one after the other in the order of their nobility).
166
prm quque tempore (Rosc. Am. 36), at the very first opportunity.
antquissimum quodque tempus (B. G. 1.45), the most ancient times.
decimus quisque (id. 5.52), one in ten.
NOTE 1.Two superlatives with quisque imply a proportion: as,sapientissimus quisque aequissim anim moritur (Cat. M. 83), the wisest men die with the greatest equanimity.
NOTE 2.Quotus quisque has the signification of how many, pray? often in a disparaging sense (how few):
quotus enim quisque disertus? quotus quisque iris pertus est (Planc. 62), for how few are eloquent! how few are learned in the law!
quotus enim istud quisque fcisset (Lig. 26), for how many would have done this? [i.e. scarcely anybody would have done it].
Nm, no one, is used of persons only
1. As a substantive:
nminem accsat, he accuses no one.
2. As an adjective pronoun instead of nllus:
vir nm bonus (Legg. 2.41), no good man.
NOTE.Even when used as a substantive, nm may take a noun in apposition: as,nm scrptor, nobody [who is] a writer.
Nllus, no, is commonly an adjective; but in the genitive and ablative singular it is regularly used instead of the corresponding cases of nm, and in the plural it may be either an adjective or a substantive:
nllum mittitur tlum (B. C. 2.13), not a missile is thrown.
nll hoste prohibente (B. G. 3.6), without opposition from the enemy.
nllus nsector calamittem (Phil. 2.98), I persecute the misfortune of no one.
nll adiuvante (id. 10.4), with the help of no one (no one helping).
nll erant praedns (Flacc. 28), there were no pirates.
nll eximentur (Pison. 94), none shall be taken away.
For nn nm, nn nllus (nn nll), see 326. a. [p. 192]
Alius means simply other, another (of an indefinite number); alter, the other (of two), often the second in a series; cter and reliqu, all the rest, the others; alteruter, one of the two:
proptere quod aliud iter habrent nllum (B. G. 1.7), because (as they said) they had no other way.
n epistulae respond, veni ad alteram (Fam. 2.17.6), one letter I have answered, I come to the other.
alterum genus (Cat. 2.19), the second class.
icissem ipse m potius in profundum ut cters cnservrem (Sest. 45), I should have rather thrown myself into the deep to save the rest.
Servlius cnsul, reliquque magistrts (B. C. 3.21), Servilius the consul and the rest of the magistrates.
cum sit necesse alterum utrum vincere (Fam. 6.3), since it must be that one of the two should prevail.
NOTE.Alter is often used, especially with negatives, in reference to an indefinite number where one is opposed to all the rest taken singly:
dum n sit t dtior alter (Hor. S. 1.1.40), so long as another is not richer than you (lit. the other, there being at the moment only two persons considered).
nn ut magis alter, amcus (id. 1.5.33), a friend such that no other is more so.
The expressions alter ... alter, the one ... the other, alius ... alius, one ... another, may be used in pairs to denote either division of a group or reciprocity of action:
alter dmicant, alter victrem timent (Fam. 6.3), one party fights, the other fears the victor.
alteram alter praesidi esse iusserat (B. C. 3.89), he had ordered each (of the two legions) to support the other.
ali gladis adoriuntur, ali fragments saeptrum (Sest. 79), some make an attack with swords, others with fragments of the railings.
alius ex ali causam quaerit (B. G. 6.37), they ask each other the reason.
alius alium percontmur (Pl. Stich. 370), we keep asking each other.
Alius and alter are often used to express one as well as another (the other) of the objects referred to:
alter cnsulum, one of the [two] consuls.
aliud est maledcere, aliud accsre (Cael. 6), it is one thing to slander, another to accuse.
Alius repeated in another case, or with an adverb from the same stem, expresses briefly a double statement:
alius aliud petit, one man seeks one thing, another another (another seeks another thing).
iussit alis alib fodere (Liv. 44.33), he ordered different persons to dig in different places.
ali ali loc resistbant (B. C. 2.39), some halted in one place, some in another. [p. 193]
VERBS
Agreement of Verb and Subject
A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Person:
silent lgs inter arma (Mil. 11), the laws are dumb in time of war.
NOTE.In verb-forms containing a participle, the participle agrees with the subject in gender and number ( 286):
rti est habita, the plea was delivered. bellum exortum est, a war arose.
A verb having a relative as its subject takes the person of the expressed or implied antecedent:
adsum qu fc (Aen. 9.427), here am I who did it.
t, qu scs, omnem dligentiam adhibbis (Att. 5.2.3), you, who know, will use all diligence.
vidte quam dspicimur omns qu sumus mnicipis (Phil. 3.15), see how all of us are scorned who are from the free towns.
A verb sometimes agrees in number (and a participle in the verbform in number and gender) with an appositive or predicate noun:
amantium rae amris integrti est (Ter. And. 555), the quarrels of lovers are the renewal of love.
nn omnis error stultitia dcenda est (Div. 2.90), not every error should be called folly.
Corinthus lmen Graeciae exstnctum est (cf. Manil. 11), Corinth, the light of Greece, is put out.
Double or Collective Subject
Two or more Singular Subjects take a verb in the Plural:
pater et avus mortu sunt, his father and grandfather are dead.
NOTE.So rarely (by synesis, 280. a) when to a singular subject is attached an ablative with cum: as,dux cum aliquot prncipibus capiuntur (Liv. 21.60), the general and several leading men are taken.
When subjects are of different persons, the verb is usually in the first person rather than the second, and in the second rather than the third:
s t et Tullia valtis ego et Cicer valmus (Fam. 14.5), if you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well. [Notice that the first person is also first in order, not last, as by courtesy in English.]
NOTE.In case of different genders a participle in a verb-form follows the rule for predicate adjectives (see 287. 2-4). [p. 194]
If the subjects are connected by disjunctives ( 223. a), or if they are considered as a single whole, the verb is usually singular:
quem neque fids neque is irandum neque illum misericordia repressit (Ter. Ad. 306), not faith, nor oath, nay, nor mercy, checked him.
sentus populusque Rmnus intellegit (Fam. 5.8), the Roman senate and people understand. [But, neque Caesar neque ego habit essmus (id. 11.20), neither Csar nor I should have been considered.]
fma et vta innocentis dfenditur (Rosc. Am. 15), the reputation and life of an innocent man are defended.
est in e virts et probits et summum officium summaque observantia (Fam. 13.28A. 2), in him are to be found worth, uprightness, the highest sense of duty, and the greatest devotion.
NOTE.So almost always when the subjects are abstract nouns.
When a verb belongs to two or more subjects separately, it often agrees with one and is understood with the others:
intercdit M. Antnius Q. Cassius tribn plbis (B. C. 1.2), Mark Antony and Quintus Cassius, tribunes of the people, interpose.
hc mihi et Peripattic et vetus Acadmia concdit (Acad. 2.113), this both the Peripatetic philosophers and the Old Academy grant me.
A collective noun commonly takes a verb in the singular; but the plural is often found with collective nouns when individuals are thought of ( 280. a):
(1) sentus haec intellegit (Cat. 1.2), the senate is aware of this.
ad hberna exercitus redit (Liv. 21.22), the army returns to winter-quarters.
plbs patribus scessit (Sall. Cat. 33), the plebs seceded from the patricians.
(2) pars praeds agbant (Iug. 32), a part brought in booty.
cum tanta multitd lapids conicerent (B. G. 2.6), when such a crowd were throwing stones.
NOTE 1.The point of view may change in the course of a sentence: as,equittum omnem ... quem habbat praemittit, qu videant (B. G. 1.15), he sent ahead all the cavalry he had, to see (who should see).
NOTE 2.The singular of a noun regularly denoting an individual is sometimes used collectively to denote a group: as, Poenus, the Carthaginians; mles, the soldiery; eques, the cavalry.
Quisque, each, and nus quisque, every single one, have very often a plural verb, but may be considered as in partitive apposition with a plural subject implied (cf. 282. a):
sibi quisque habeant quod suum est (Pl. Curc. 180), let every one keep his own (let them keep every man his own).
NOTE.So also uterque, each (of two), and the reciprocal phrases alius ... alium alter ... alterum ( 315. a). [p. 195]
Omission of Subject or Verb
The Subject of the Verb is sometimes omitted:
A Personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless emphatic:
loquor, I speak. But, ego loquor, it is I that speak.
An indefinite subject is often omitted:crders, you would have supposed; putmus, we (people) think; dcunt, ferunt, perhibent, they say.
A passive verb is often used impersonally without a subject expressed or understood ( 208. d):
di atque criter pgntum est (B. G. 1.26), they fought long and vigorously.
The verb is sometimes omitted:
Dc, faci, ag, and other common verbs are often omitted in familiar phrases:
qursum haec [spectant], what does this aim at?
ex ungue lenem [cgnscs], you will know a lion by his claw.
quid multa, what need of many words? (why should I say much?)
quid? quod, what of this, that ...? (what shall I say of this, that ... ?) [A form of transition.]
Aeolus haec contr; (Aen. 1.76), olus thus [spoke] in reply.
tum Cotta [inquit], then said Cotta.
d melira [duint]! (Cat. M. 47), Heaven forfend (may the gods grant better things)!
unde [vens] et qu [tendis]? (Hor. S. 2.4.1), where from and whither bound? [Cf. id. 1.9.62for the full form.]
The copula sum is very commonly omitted in the present indica tive and present infinitive, rarely (except by late authors) in the sub junctive:
t coninx (Aen. 4.113), you [are] his wife.
quid erg? audcissimus ego ex omnibus (Rosc. Am. 2), what then? am I the boldest of all?
omnia praeclra rra (Lael. 79), all the best things are rare.
potest incidere saepe contenti et comparti d dubus honests utrum honestius (Off. 1.152), there may often occur a comparison of two honorable actions, as to which is the more honorable. [Here, if any copula were expressed, it would be sit, but the direct question would be complete without any.]
accipe quae peragenda prius (Aen. 6.136), hear what is first to be accomplished. [Direct: quae peragenda prius?] [p. 196]
PARTICLES
Adverbs
The proper function of Adverbs, as petrified case-forms, is to modify Verbs: as,celeriter re, to go with speed. It is from this use that they derive their name (adverbium, from ad, to, and verbum, verb; see 241. b). They also modify adjectives, showing in what manner or degree the quality described is manifested: as, splendid mendx, gloriously false. More rarely they modify other adverbs: as, nimis graviter, too severely. Many adverbs, especially relative adverbs, serve as connectives, and are hardly to be distinguished from conjunctions (see 20. g. N.).
167
Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs.
A Demonstrative or Relative adverb is often equivalent to the corresponding Pronoun with a preposition (see 308. g):
e [ = in ea] impnit vsa (Iug. 75), upon them (thither, thereon, on the beasts) he puts the camp-utensils.
e mlits impnere (B. G. 1.42), to put soldiers upon them (the horses).
apud es qu [ = ad qus] s contulit (Verr. 4.38), among those to whom (whither) he resorted.
qu eum necsset unde [ = qu] ipse ntus esset (Rosc. Am. 71), one who should have killed his own father (him whence he had his birth).
condicins misers administrandrum prvincirum ubi [ = in quibus] sevrits perculsa est (Flacc. 87), O! wretched terms of managing the provinces, where strictness is dangerous.
The participles dictum and factum, when used as nouns, are regularly modified by adverbs rather than by adjectives; so occasionally other perfect participles:
praeclr facta (Nep. Timoth. 1), glorious deeds (things gloriously done).
multa fact dicta (Off. 1.104), many witty sayings.
A noun is sometimes used as an adjective, and may then be modified by an adverb:
victor exercitus, the victorious army.
admodum puer, quite a boy (young).
magis vir, more of a man (more manly).
populum lt rgem (Aen. 1.21), a people ruling far and wide.
NOTE.Very rarely adverbs are used with nouns which have no adjective force bat which contain a verbal idea:
hinc abiti; (Plaut. Rud. 503), a going away from here.
quid cgitem d obviarr itine (Att. 13.50), what I think about going to meet (him). [Perhaps felt as a compound.] [p. 197]
A few adverbs appear to be used like adjectives. Such are obviam, palam, sometimes contr, and occasionally others:
fit obviam Cldi; (Mil. 29), he falls in with (becomes in the way of) Clodius. [Cf. the adjective obvius: as,s ille obvius e futrus nn erat (id. 47), if he was not likely to fall in with him.]
haec commemor quae sunt palam (Pison. 11), I mention these facts, which are well-known.
alia probbilia, contr alia dcimus (Off. 2.7), we call some things probable, others the opposite (not probable). [In this use, contr contradicts a previous adjective, and so in a manner repeats it.]
er semper lnits (Ter. And. 175), my master's constant (always) gentleness. [An imitation of a Greek construction.]
NOTE.In some cases one can hardly say whether the adverb is treated as an adjective modifying the noun, or the noun modified is treated as an adjective (as in c above).
For propius, prdi, palam, and other adverbs used as prepositions, see 432.
The following adverbs require special notice:
Etiam (et iam), also, even, is stronger than quoque, also, and usually precedes the emphatic word, while quoque follows it:
nn verbs slum sed etiam v; (Verr. 2.64), not only by words, but also by force.
hc quoque maleficium (Rosc. Am. 117), this crime too.
Nunc
168 means definitely now, in the immediate present, and is rarely used of the immediate past.
Iam means now, already, at length, presently, and includes a reference to previous time through which the state of things described has been or will be reached. It may be used of any time. With negatives iam means (no) longer.
Tum, then, is correlative to cum, when, and may be used of any time. Tunc, then, at that time, is a strengthened form of tum (tum-ce, cf. nunc):
ut iam ante dx, as I have already said before.
s iam satis aettis atque rboris habret (Rosc. Am. 149), if he had attained a suitable age and strength (lit. if he now had, as he will have by and by).
nn est iam lnitt locus, there is no longer room for mercy.
quod iam erat nstittum, which had come to be a practice (had now been established).
nunc quidem dlta est, tunc flrbat (Lael. 13), now ('t is true) she [Greece] is ruined, then she was in her glory.
tum cum rgnbat, at the time when he reigned. [p. 198]
Cert means certainly, cert (usually) at least, at any rate:
cert sci, I know for a certainty; ego cert, I at least.
Prmum means first (first in order, or for the first time), and implies a series of events or acts. Prm means at first, as opposed to afterwards, giving prominence merely to the difference of time:
hc prmum senti, this I hold in the first place.
aeds prm ruere rbmur, at first we thought the house was falling.
NOTE.In enumerations, prmum (or prm) is often followed by deinde, secondly, in the next place, or by tum, then, or by both in succession. Deinde may be several times repeated (secondly, thirdly, etc.). The series is often closed by dnique or postrm, lastly, finally. Thus,prmum d genere bell, deinde d mgnitdine, tum d impertre dligend (Manil. 6), first of the kind of war, next of its magnitude, then of the choice of a commander.
Quidem, indeed, gives emphasis, and often has a concessive meaning, especially when followed by sed, autem, etc.:
hc quidem vidre licet (Lael. 54), THIS surely one may see. [Emphatic.]
[scrits] speci quidem blanda, sed repse mults locs repudianda (id. 47), (tranquillity) in appearance, it is true, attractive, but in reality to be rejected for many reasons. [Concessive.]
N ... quidem means not even or not ... either. The emphatic word or words must stand between n and quidem:
sed n Iugurtha quidem quitus erat (Iug. 51), but Jugurtha was not quiet either.
ego autem n rsc possum quidem is qus vald am; (Att. 2.19.1), but I cannot even get angry with those whom I love very much.
NOTE.Equidem has the same senses as quidem, but is in Cicero confined to the first person. Thus,equidem adprobb (Fam. 2.3.2), I for my part shall approve.
CONJUNCTIONS
169
[323] Copulative and Disjunctive Conjunctions connect similar constructions, and are regularly followed by the same case or mood that precedes them:
scrptum sentu et popul; (Cat. 3.10), written to the senate and people.
ut es [parts] snrs et cnfrmrs (Mil. 68), that you might cure and strengthen those parts.
neque me prdenti neque hmns cnsilis frtus (Cat. 2.29), relying neither on my own foresight nor on human wisdom. [p. 199]
[a]
Conjunctions of Comparison (as ut, quam, tamquam, quasi) also commonly connect similar constructions:
hs igitur quam physics potius crdendum exstims (Div. 2.37), do you think these are more to be trusted than the natural philosophers?
hominem callidirem vd nminem quam Phorminem (Ter. Ph. 591), a shrewder man I never saw than Phormio (cf. 407).
ut nn omne vnum sc nn omnis ntra vetustte coacscit (Cat. M. 65), as every wine does not sour with age, so [does] not every nature.
in m quasi in tyrannum (Phil. 14.15), against me as against a tyrant.
[b]
Two or more cordinate words, phrases, or sentences are often put together without the use of conjunctions (Asyndeton, 601. c):
omns d, homins, all gods and men.
summ, medi, nfim, the highest, the middle class, and the lowest.
ira, lgs, agrs, lberttem nbs relqurunt (B. G. 7.77), they have left us our rights, our laws, our fields, our liberty.
[c]
1. Where there are more than two cordinate words etc., a conjunction, if used, is ordinarily used with all (or all except the first):
aut aere alin aut mgnitdine tribtrum aut iniri potentirum (B. G. 6.13), by debt, excessive taxation, or oppression on the part of the powerful.
at sunt mrs et anxi et rcund et difficils sens (Cat. M. 65), but (you say) old men are capricious, solicitous, choleric, and fussy.
2. But words are often so divided into groups that the members of the groups omit the conjunction (or express it), while the groups themselves express the conjunction (or omit it):
propudium illud et portentum, L. Antnius nsgne odium omnium hominum (Phil. 14.8), that wretch and monster, Lucius Antonius, the abomination of all men.
utrumque git graviter, auctritte et offnsine anim nn acerb; (Lael. 77), he acted in both cases with dignity, without loss of authority and with no bitterness of feeling.
3. The enclitic -que is sometimes used with the last member of a series, even when there is no grouping apparent:
vce volt mtque (Brut. 110), by voice, expression, and gesture.
cram cnsilium vigilantiamque (Phil. 7.20), care, wisdom, and vigilance.
qurum auctrittem dgnittem volunttemque dfenders (Fam. 1.7.2), whose dignity, honor, and wishes you had defended.
[d]
Two adjectives belonging to the same noun are regularly connected by a conjunction:
multae et gravs causae, many weighty reasons.
vir lber a fortis (Rep. 2.34), a free and brave man. [p. 200]
[e]
Often the same conjunction is repeated in two cordinate clauses:
et ... et (-que ... -que), both ... and.
aut ... aut, either ... or.
vel ... vel, either ... or. [Examples in 324. e.]
sve (seu) ... sve (seu), whether ... or. [Examples in 324. f.]
[f]
Many adverbs are similarly used in pairs, as conjunctions, partly or wholly losing their adverbial force:
nunc ... nunc, tum ... tum, iam ... iam, now ... now.
modo ... modo, now ... now.
simul ... simul, at the same time ... at the same time.
qu ... qu, now ... now, both ... and, alike [this] and [that].
modo ait modo negat (Ter. Eun. 714), now he says yes, now no.
simul grtis agit, simul grtultur (Q. C. 6.7.15), he thanks him and at the same time congratulates him.
rumpunt saepe vitia amcrum tum in ipss amcs tum in alins (Lael. 76), the faults of friends sometimes break out, now against their friends themselves, now against strangers.
qu mars qu fmins (Pl. Mil. 1113), both males and females.
[g]
Certain relative and demonstrative adverbs are used correla tively as conjunctions:
ut (rel.) ... ita, sc (dem.), as (while) ... so (yet).
tam (dem.) ... quam (rel.), so (as) ... as.
cum (rel.) ... tum (dem.), while ... so also; not only ... but also.
[324] The following Conjunctions require notice:
[a]
Et, and, simply connects words or clauses; -que combines more closely into one connected whole. -que is always enclitic to the word connected or to the first or second of two or more words connected:
cum coniugibus et lbers, with [their] wives and children.
ferr gnque, with fire and sword. [Not as separate things, but as the combined means of devastation.]
aqu et gn interdictus, forbidden the use of water and fire. [In a legal formula, where they are considered separately.]
[b]
Atque (ac), and, adds with some emphasis or with some implied reflection on the word added. Hence it is often equivalent to and so, and yet, and besides, and then. But these distinctions depend very much upon the feeling of the speaker, and are often untranslatable:
omnia honesta atque inhonesta, everything honorable and dishonorable (too, without the slightest distinction).
sus atque disciplna, practice and theory beside (the more important or less expected).
atque ego crd, and yet I believe (for my part). [p. 201]
[c]
Atque (ac), in the sense of as, than, is also used after words of comparison and likeness:
simul atque, as soon as.
nn secus (nn aliter) ac s, not otherwise than if.
pr e ac dbu, as was my duty (in accordance as I ought).
aequ ac t, as much as you.
haud minus ac iuss faciunt, they do just as they are ordered.
For and not, see 328. a.
[d]
Sed and the more emphatic vrum or vr, but, are used to introduce something in opposition to what precedes, especially after negatives (not this ... but something else). At (old form ast) introduces with emphasis a new point in an argument, but is also used like the others; sometimes it means at least. At enim is almost always used to introduce a supposed objection which is presently to be overthrown. At is more rarely used alone in this sense.
Autem, however, now, is the weakest of the adversatives, and often marks a mere transition and has hardly any adversative force perceptible. Atqu, however, now, sometimes introduces an objection and sometimes a fresh step in the reasoning. Quod s, but if, and if, now if, is used to continue an argument.
NOTE.Et, -que, and atque (ac) are sometimes used where the English idiom would suggest but, especially when a negative clause is followed by an affirmative clause continuing the same thought: as,impetum hosts ferre nn poturunt ac terga vertrunt (B. G. 4.35), the enemy could not stand the onset, but turned their backs.
[e]
Aut, or, excludes the alternative; vel (an old imperative of vol) and -ve give a choice between two alternatives. But this distinction is not always observed:
sed quis ego sum aut quae est in m facults (Lael. 17), but who am I or what special capacity have I? [Here vel could not be used, because in fact a negative is implied and both alternatives are excluded.]
aut bibat aut abeat (Tusc. 5.118), let him drink or (if he won't do that, then let him) quit. [Here vel would mean, let him do either as he chooses.]
vta tlis fuit vel fortn vel glri; (Lael. 12), his life was such either in respect to fortune or fame (whichever way you look at it).
s propinqus habeant imbcillirs vel anim vel fortn; (id. 70), if they have relatives beneath them either in spirit or in fortune (in either respect, for example, or in both).
aut derum aut rgum fli; (id. 70), sons either of gods or of kings. [Here one case would exclude the other.]
implict vel s diturn vel etiam officis (id. 85), entangled either by close intimacy or even by obligations. [Here the second case might exclude the first.] [p. 202]
[f]
Sve (seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions (if either ... or if), but also with alternative words and clauses, especially with two names for the same thing:
sve inrdns sve quod ita putret (De Or. 1.91), either laughingly or because he really thought so.
sve deae seu sint volucrs (Aen. 3.262), whether they (the Harpies) are goddesses or birds.
[g]
Vel, even, for instance, is often used as an intensive particle with no alternative force: as,vel minimus, the very least.
[h]
Nam and namque, for, usually introduce a real reason, formally expressed, for a previous statement; enim (always postpositive), a less important explanatory circumstance put in by the way; etenim (for, you see; for, you know; for, mind you) and its negative neque enim introduce something self-evident or needing no proof.
(ea vta) quae est sla vta nminanda. nam dum sumus incls in hs compgibus corporis, mnere qudam necessittis et grav opere perfungimur; est enim animus caelestis, etc. (Cat. M. 77), (that life) which alone deserves to be called life; for so long as we are confined by the body's frame, we perform a sort of necessary function and heavy task. For the soul is from heaven.
hrum trium sententirum nll prrsus adsentior. nec enim illa prma vra est (Lael. 57), for of course that first one is n't true.
[i]
Erg, therefore, is used of things proved formally, but often has a weakened force. Igitur, then, accordingly, is weaker than erg and is used in passing from one stage of an argument to another. Itaque, therefore, accordingly, and so, is used in proofs or inferences from the nature of things rather than in formal logical proof. All of these are often used merely to resume a train of thought broken by a digression or parenthesis. Idcirc, for this reason, on this account, is regularly followed (or preceded) by a correlative (as, quia, quod, s, ut, n), and refers to the special point introduced by the correlative.
malum mihi vidtur esse mors. est miserum igitur, quoniam malum. cert. erg et e quibus vnit iam ut morerentur et e quibus ventrum est miser. mihi ita vidtur. nm erg nn miser. (Tusc. 1.9.) Death seems to me to be an evil. It is wretched, then, since it is an evil. Certainly. Therefore, all those who have already died and who are to die hereafter are wretched. So it appears to me. There is no one, therefore, who is not wretched.
quia ntra mtr nn potest, idcirc vrae amcitiae sempiternae sunt (Lael. 32), because nature cannot be changed, for this reason true friendships are eternal. [p. 203]
[j]
Autem, enim, and vr are postpositive
170 ; so generally igitur and often tamen.
[k]
Two conjunctions of similar meaning are often used together for the sake of emphasis or to bind a sentence more closely to what precedes: as, at vr>, but in truth, but surely, still, however; itaque erg, accordingly then; namque, for; et-enim, for, you see, for of course ( 324. h).
For Conjunctions introducing Subordinate Clauses, see Syntax.
Negative Particles
171
In the use of the Negative Particles, the following points are to be observed:
Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative:
nm nn audiet, every one will hear (nobody will not hear).
nn possum nn cnfitr; (Fam. 9.14.1), I must confess.
ut ... n nn timre quidem sine aliqu timre possmus (Mil. 2), so that we cannot even be relieved of fear without some fear.
Many compounds or phrases of which nn is the first part express an indefinite affirmative:
nn nllus, some; nn nll; (=aliqu), some few.
nn nihil (=aliquid), something.
nn nm; (=aliquot), sundry persons.
nn numquam (=aliquotins), sometimes.
Two negatives of which the second is nn (belonging to the predicate) express a universal affirmative:
nm nn, nllus nn, nobody [does] not, i.e. everybody [does]. [Cf. nn nm, not nobody, i.e. somebody.]
nihil nn, everything. [Cf. nn nihil, something.]
numquam nn, never not, i.e. always. [Cf. nn numquam, sometimes.]
A statement is often made emphatic by denying its contrary (Litotes, 641):
nn semel (=saepissim), often enough (not once only).
nn haec sine nmine dvom veniunt (Aen. 2.777), these things do not occur without the will of the gods.
haec nn nimis exqur; (Att. 7.18.3), not very much, i.e. very little.
NOTE.Compare nn nllus, nn nm, etc., in a above. [p. 204]
A general negation is not destroyed
1. By a following n ... quidem, not even, or nn modo, not only:
numquam t nn modo tium, sed n bellum quidem nisi nefrium concupst; (Cat. 1.25), not only have you never desired repose, but you have never desired any war except one which was infamous.
2. By succeeding negatives each introducing a separate subordinate member:
eaque nescibant nec ubi nec qulia essent (Tusc. 3.4), they knew not where or of what kind these things were.
3. By neque introducing a cordinate member:
neque satis mrr neque conicere (Ter. Eun. 547), I cannot wonder enough nor conjecture.
The negative is frequently joined with a conjunction or with an indefinite pronoun or adverb. Hence the forms of negation in Latin differ from those in English in many expressions:
nll (neutr) crd (not nn crd ll), I do not believe either (I believe neither).
sine ll percul; (less commonly cum nll), with no danger (without any danger).
nihil umquam audv icundius, I never heard anything more amusing.
Cf. neg haec esse vra (not dc nn esse), I say this is not true (I deny, etc.)
In the second of two connected ideas, and not is regularly expressed by neque (nec), not by et nn:
hosts terga vertrunt, neque prius fugere dstitrunt (B. G. 1.53), the enemy turned and fled, and did not stop fleeing until, etc.
NOTE.Similarly nec quisquam is regularly used for et nm; neque llus for et nllus; nec umquam for et numquam; nve (neu), for et n.
The particle immo, nay, is used to contradict some part of a preceding statement or question, or its form; in the latter case, the same statement is often repeated in a stronger form, so that immo becomes nearly equivalent to yes (nay but, nay rather):
causa igitur nn bona est? immo optima (Att. 9.7.4), is the cause then not a good one? on the contrary, the best.
Minus, less (especially with s, if, qu, in order that), and minim, least, often have a negative force:
s minus possunt, if they cannot. [For qu minus, see 558. b.]
audcissimus ego ex omnibus? minim (Rosc. Am. 2), am I the boldest of them all? by no means (not at all). [p. 205]
QUESTIONS
Forms of Interrogation
Questions are either Direct or Indirect.
1. A Direct Question gives the exact words of the speaker:
2. An Indirect Question gives the substance of the question, adapted to the form of the sentence in which it is quoted. It depends on a verb or other expression of asking, doubting, knowing, or the like:
rogvit quid esset, he asked what it was. [Direct: quid est, what is it?]
nesci ubi sim, I know not where I am. [Direct: ubi sum, where am I?]
Questions in Latin are introduced by special interrogative words, and are not distinguished by the order of words, as in English.
172
NOTE.The form of Indirect Questions (in English introduced by whether, or by an interrogative pronoun or adverb) is in Latin the same as that of Direct; the difference being only in the verb, which in indirect questions is regularly in the Subjunctive ( 574).
A question of simple fact, requiring the answer yes or no, is formed by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word:
tne id veritus es (Q. Fr. 1.3.1), did you fear that?
hcine vir usquam nisi in patri moritur (Mil. 104), shall this man die anywhere but in his native land?
is tibi mortemne vidtur aut dolrem timre (Tusc. 5.88), does he seem to you to fear death or pain?
The interrogative particle -ne is sometimes omitted:
patre tua cnsilia nn sents (Cat. 1.1), do you not see that your schemes are manifest? (you do not see, eh?)
NOTE.In such cases, as no sign of interrogation appears, it is often doubtful whether the sentence is a question or an ironical statement.
When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word, as in nnne, an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a negative answer:
nnne animadvertis (N. D. 3.89), do you not observe?
num dubium est (Rosc. Am. 107), there is no doubt, is there?
NOTE.In Indirect Questions num commonly loses its peculiar force and means simply whether. [p. 206]
The particle -ne often when added to the verb, less commonly when added to some other word, has the force of nnne:
meministne m in sent dcere (Cat. 1.7), don't you remember my saying in the Senate?
rctne interpretor sententiam tuam (Tusc. 3.37), do I not rightly interpret your meaning?
NOTE 1.This was evidently the original meaning of -ne; but in most cases the negative force was lost and -ne was used merely to express a question. So the English interrogative no? shades off into eh?
NOTE 2.The enclitic -ne is sometimes added to other interrogative words: as, utrumne, whether? anne, or; quantane (Hor. S. 2.3.317), how big? qune mal (id. 2.3.295), by what curse?
A question concerning some special circumstance is formed by prefixing to the sentence an interrogative pronoun or adverb as in English ( 152):
quid exspects (Cat. 2.18), what are you looking forward to?
qu igitur haec spectant (Fam. 6.6.11), whither then is all this tending?
care, ubi es (Ov. M. 8.232), Icarus, where are you?
quod vectgal vbs ttum fuit? quem socium dfendistis? cui praesidi classibus vestrs fuistis? (Manil. 32), what revenue has been safe for you? what ally have you defended? whom have you guarded with your fleets?
NOTE.A question of this form becomes an exclamation by changing the tone of the voice: as,
qulis vir erat! what a man he was!
quot calamitts pass sumus! how many misfortunes we have suffered!
qu studi cnsentiunt (Cat. 4.15), with what zeal they unite!
The particles -nam (enclitic) and tandem may be added to interrogative pronouns and adverbs for the sake of emphasis:
quisnam est, pray who is it? [quis tandem est? would be stronger.]
ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. 1.9), where in the world are we?
in qu tandem urbe hc disputant (Mil. 7), in what city, pray, do they maintain this?
NOTETandem is sometimes added to verbs:
ain tandem (Fam. 9.21), you don't say so! (say you so, pray?)
itane tandem uxrem dxit Antiph; (Ter. Ph. 231), so then, eh? Antipho's got married.
Double Questions
A Double or Alternative Question is an inquiry as to which of two or more supposed cases is the true one.
In Double or Alternative Questions, utrum or -ne, whether, stands in the first member; an, anne, or, annn, necne, or not, in the second; and usually an in the third, if there be one: [p. 207]
utrum nescs, an pr nihil id puts (Fam. 10.26), is it that you don't know, or do you think nothing of it?
vsne L. Domitium an vs Domitius dseruit (B. C. 2.32), did you desert Lucius Domitius, or did Domitius desert you?
quaer servsne an lbers (Rosc. Am. 74), I ask whether slaves or free.
utrum hostem an vs an fortnam utrusque popul gnrtis (Liv. 21.10), is it the enemy, or yourselves, or the fortune of the two peoples, that you do not know?
NOTE.Anne for an is rare. Necne is rare in direct questions, but in indirect questions it is commoner than annn. In poetry -ne ... -ne sometimes occurs.
The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first member; in which case an or -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second:
Gabni dcam anne Pompi an utrque (Manil. 57), shall I say to Gabinius, or to Pompey, or to both?
sunt haec tua verba necne (Tusc. 3.41), are these your words or not?
quaesv Catiln in convent apud M. Laecam fuisset necne (Cat. 2.13), I asked Catiline whether he had been at the meeting at Marcus Laeca's or not.
Sometimes the first member is omitted or implied, and an (anne) alone asks the question,usually with indignation or surprise:
an t misers puts ills (Tusc. 1.13), what! do you think those men wretched?
an iste umquam d s bonam spem habuisset, nisi d vbs malam opninem anim imbibisset (Verr. 1.42), would he ever have had good hopes about himself unless he had conceived an evil opinion of you?
Sometimes the second member is omitted or implied, and utrum may ask a question to which there is no alternative:
utrum est in clrissims cvibus is, quem ... (Flacc. 45), is he among the noblest citizens, whom, etc.?
The following table exhibits the various forms of alternative questions:
utrum ... an ... an
utrum ... annn (necne, see 335. N.)
---- ... an (anne)
-ne ... an
---- ... -ne, necne
-ne ... necne
-ne ... -ne
NOTE.From double (alternative) questions must be distinguished those which are in themselves single, but of which some detail is alternative. These have the common disjunctive particles aut or vel (-ve). Thus,quaer num inist aut improb fcerit (Off. 3.54), I ask whether he acted unjustly or even dishonestly. Here there is no double question. The only inquiry is whether the man did either of the two things supposed, not which of the two he did. [p. 208]
Question and Answer
There is no one Latin word in common use meaning simply yes or no. In answering a question affirmatively, the verb or some other emphatic word is generally repeated; in answering negatively, the verb, etc., with nn or a similar negative:
valetne, is he well? valet, yes (he is well).
eratne tcum, was he with you? nn erat, no (he was not).
num quidnam nov? there is nothing new, is there? nihil sn, oh! nothing.
An intensive or negative particle, a phrase, or a clause is sometimes used to answer a direct question:
1. For YES:
|
vr, in truth, true, no doubt, yes.
|
ita vr, certainly (so in truth), etc. |
|
etiam, even so, yes, etc. |
sn quidem, yes, no doubt, etc. |
|
ita, so, true, etc. |
ita est, it is so, true, etc. |
sn, surely, no doubt, doubtless, etc.
cert, certainly, unquestionably, etc.
factum, true, it's a fact, you're right, etc. (lit., it was done).
2. For NO:
|
nn, not so.
|
nll mod, by no means.
|
minim, not at all (lit., in the smallest degree, cf. 329. a).
minim vr, no, not by any means; oh! no, etc.
nn quidem, why, no; certainly not, etc.
nn hercle vr, why, gracious, no! (certainly not, by Hercules!)
Examples are:
quidnam? an laudtins? ita, why, what? is it eulogies? just so.
aut etiam aut nn respondre (Acad. 2.104), to answer (categorically) yes or no.
estne ut fertur forma? sn (Ter. Eun. 361), is she as handsome as they say she is? (is her beauty as it is said?) oh! yes.
miser erg Archelus? cert s inistus (Tusc. 5.35), was Archelaus wretched then? certainly, if he was unjust.
an haec contemnitis? minim (De Or. 2.295), do you despise these things? not at all.
volucribusne et fers? minim vr (Tusc. 1.104), to the birds and beasts? why, of course not.
ex tu anim sententi t uxrem habs? nn hercle, ex me anim sententi; (De Or. 2.260), Lord! no, etc.
In answering a double question, one member of the alternative, or some part of it, must be repeated:
vdist an d audt nntis?egomet vd; (Plaut. Merc. 902), did you see it or are you repeating something you have heard?I saw it myself. [p. 209]
CONSTRUCTION OF CASES
[338] The Cases of nouns express their relations to other words in the sentence. The most primitive way of expressing such relations was by mere juxtaposition of uninflected forms. From this arose in time composition, i.e. the growing together of stems, by means of which a complex expression arises with its parts mutually dependent. Thus such a complex as armi-gero- came to mean arm-bearing; fidi-cen-, playing on the lyre. Later, Cases were formed by means of suffixes expressing more definitely such relations, and Syntax began. But the primitive method of composition still continues to hold an important place even in the most highly developed languages.
Originally the Indo-European family of languages, to which Latin belongs, had at least seven case-forms, besides the Vocative. But in Latin the Locative and the Instrumental were lost
173 except in a few words (where they remained without being recognized as cases), and their functions were divided among the other cases.
The Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative express the simplest and perhaps the earliest case-relations. The Nominative is the case of the Subject, and generally ends in -s. The Vocative, usually without a termination, or like the Nominative ( 38. a), perhaps never had a suffix of its own.
174 The Accusative, most frequently formed by the suffix -m, originally connected the noun loosely with the verb-idea, not necessarily expressed by a verb proper, but as well by a noun or an adjective (see 386).
The Genitive appears to have expressed a great variety of relations and to have had no single primitive meaning; and the same may be true of the Dative.
The other cases perhaps at first expressed relations of place or direction (TO, FROM, AT, WITH), though this is not clear in all instances. The earlier meanings, however, have become confused with each other, and in many instances the cases are no longer distinguishable in meaning or in form. Thus the Locative was for the most part lost from its confusion with the Dative and Ablative; and its function was often performed by the Ablative, which is freely used to express the place where ( 421). To indicate the case-relationsespecially those of placemore precisely, Prepositions (originally adverbs) gradually came into use. The case-endings, thus losing something of their significance, were less distinctly pronounced as time went on (see 36, phonetic decay), and prepositions have finally superseded them in the modern languages derived from Latin. But in Latin a large and various body of relations was still expressed by caseforms. It is to be noticed that in their literal use cases tended to adopt the preposition, and in their figurative uses to retain the old construction. (See Ablative of Separation, 402-404; Ablative of Place and Time, 421 ff.)
The word csus, case, is a translation of the Greek πτῶσις, a falling away (from the erect position). The term πτῶσις was originally applied to the Oblique Cases ( 35. g), to mark them as variations from the Nominative, which was called ὀρθή, erect (csus rctus). The later name Nominative (csus nmintvus) is from nmin, and means the naming case. The other case-names (except Ablative) are of Greek origin. The name Genitive (csus genetvus) is a translation of γενική [πτῶσις], from γένος (class), and refers to the class to which a thing belongs. Dative (csus datvus, from d) is translated from δοτική, and means the case of giving. Accusative (accstvus, from accs) is a mistranslation of αἰτιατική (the case of causing), from αἰτία, cause, and meant to the Romans the case of accusing. The name Vocative (voctvus, from voc) is translated from κλητική (the case of calling). The name Ablative (abltvus, from abltus, aufer) means taking from. This case the Greek had lost. [p. 210]
NOMINATIVE CASE
The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative:
Caesar Rhnum trnsre dcrverat (B. G. 4.17), Csar had determined to cross the Rhine.
For the omission of a pronominal subject, see 295. a.
The nominative may be used in exclamations:
n dextra fidsque (Aen. 4.597), lo, the faith and plighted word!
ecce tuae litterae d Varrne (Att. 13.16), lo and behold, your letters aoout Varro!
NOTE.But the accusative is more common ( 397. d).
VOCATIVE CASE
The Vocative is the case of direct address:
Tiberne pater, t, sncte, precor (Liv. 2.10), O father Tiber, thee, holy one, I pray.
rs omnis mihi tcum erit, Hortns (Verr. 1.33), my whole attention will be devoted to you, Hortensius.
A noun in the nominative in apposition with the subject of the imperative mood is sometimes used instead of the vocative:
aud t, populus Albnus (Liv. 1.24), hear, thou people of Alba.
The vocative of an adjective is sometimes used in poetry instead of the nominative, where the verb is in the second person:
qu moritre ruis (Aen. 10.811), whither art thou rushing to thy doom?
cnsrem trabete salts (Pers. 3.29), robed you salute the censor.
The vocative macte is used as a predicate in the phrase macte est (virtte), success attend your (valor):
iubrem t macte virtte esse (Liv. 2.12), I should bid you go on and prosper in your valor.
macte nov virtte puer (Aen. 9.641), success attend your valor, boy!
NOTE.As the original quantity of the final e in macte is not determinable, it may be that the word was an adverb, as in bene est and the like.
GENITIVE CASE
The Genitive is regularly used to express the relation of one noun to another. Hence it is sometimes called the adjective case, to distinguish it from the Dative and the Ablative, which may be called adverbial cases. [p. 211]
The uses of the Genitive may be classified as follows:
|
I. Genitive with Nouns: |
1. Of Possession ( 343). |
|
2. Of Material ( 344). |
|
3. Of Quality ( 345). |
|
4. Of the Whole, after words designating a Part (Partitive, 346). |
|
5. With Nouns of Action and Feeling ( 348). |
|
II. Genitive with Adjectives: |
1. After Relative Adjectives (or Verbals) ( 349). |
|
2. Of Specification (later use) ( 349. d). |
|
III. Genitive with Verbs: |
1. Of Memory, Feeling, etc. ( 350, 351, 354). |
|
2. Of Accusing, etc. (Charge or Penalty) ( 352). |
GENITIVE WITH NOUNS
A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same person or thing, is put in the Genitive.
This relation is most frequently expressed in English by the preposition of, sometimes by the English genitive (or possessive) case:
libr Cicernis, the books of Cicero, or Cicero's books.
inimc Caesaris, Csar's enemies, or the enemies of Csar.
talentum aur, a talent of gold.
vir summae virttis, a man of the greatest courage.
But observe the following equivalents:
vacti labris, a respite FROM toil.
petti cnsults, candidacy FOR the consulship.
rgnum cvittis, royal power OVER the state.
Possessive Genitive
The Possessive Genitive denotes the person or thing to which an object, quality, feeling, or action belongs:
Alexandr canis, Alexander's dog.
potentia Pomp (Sall. Cat. 19), Pompey's power.
Ariovist mors (B. G. 5.29), the death of Ariovistus.
perditrum temerits (Mil. 22), the recklessness of desperate men.
NOTE 1.The Possessive Genitive may denote (1) the actual owner (as in Alexander's dog) or author (as in Cicero's writings), or (2) the person or thing that possesses some feeling or quality or does some act (as in Cicero's eloquence, the strength of the bridge, Catiline's evil deeds). In the latter use it is sometimes called the Subjective Genitive; but this term properly includes the possessive genitive and several other genitive constructions (nearly all, in fact, except the Objective Genitive, 347).
NOTE 2.The noun limited is understood in a few expressions:
ad Castoris [aeds] (Quinct. 17), at the [temple] of Castor. [Cf. St. Paul's.]
Flaccus Claud, Flaccus [slave] of Claudius.
Hectoris Andromach; (Aen. 3.319), Hector's [wife] Andromache. [p. 212]
For the genitive of possession a possessive or derivative adjective is often used,regularly for the possessive genitive of the personal pronouns ( 302. a):
liber meus, my book. [Not liber me.]
alina percula, other men's dangers. [But also alirum.]
Sullna tempora, the times of Sulla. [Oftener Sullae.]
The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, connected with its noun by a verb (Predicate Genitive):
haec domus est patris me, this house is my father's.
iam m Pomp ttum esse scs (Fam. 2.13), you know I am now all for Pompey (all Pompey's).
summa laus et tua et Brt est (Fam. 12.4.2), the highest praise is due both to you and to Brutus (is both yours and Brutus's).
compend facere, to save (make of saving).
lucr facere, to get the benefit of (make of profit).
NOTE.These genitives bear the same relation to the examples in 343 that a predicate noun bears to an appositive ( 282, 283).
An infinitive or a clause, when used as a noun, is often limited by a genitive in the predicate:
neque su idic [erat] discernere (B. C. 1.35), nor was it for his judgment to decide (nor did it belong to his judgment).
ciusvs hominis est errre (Phil. 12.5), it is any man's [liability] to err.
negvit mris esse Graecrum, ut in convvi virrum accumberent muliers (Verr. 2.1.66), he said it was not the custom of the Greeks for women to appear as guests (recline) at the banquets of men.
sed timid est optre necem (Ov. M. 4.115), but't is the coward's part to wish for death.
stult erat sprre, sudre impudentis (Phil. 2.23), it was folly (the part of a fool) to hope, effrontery to urge.
sapientis est pauca loqu, it is wise (the part of a wise man) to say little. [Not sapins (neuter) est, etc.]
NOTE 1.This construction is regular with adjectives of the third declension instead of the neuter nominative (see the last two examples).
NOTE 2.A derivative or possessive adjective may be used for the genitive in this construction, and must be used for the genitive of a personal pronoun:
mentr nn est meum [not me], it is not for me to lie.
hmnum [for hominis] est errre, it is man's nature to err (to err is human).
A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in apposition (Appositional Genitive) ( 282):
nmen nsniae (for nmen nsnia), the word madness.
oppidum Antiochae (for oppidum Antiocha, the regular form), the city of Antioch. [p. 213]
Genitive of Material
The Genitive may denote the Substance or Material of which a thing consists (cf. 403):
Genitive of Quality
The Genitive is used to denote Quality, but only when the quality is modified by an adjective:
vir summae virttis, a man of the highest courage. [But not vir virttis.]
mgnae est dlbertinis, it is an affair of great deliberation.
mgn formca labris (Hor. S. 1.1.33), the ant [a creature] of great toil.
ille autem su idic (Nep. Att. 9), but he [a man] of independent (his own) judgment.
NOTE.Compare Ablative of Quality ( 415). In expressions of quality, the genitive or the ablative may often be used indifferently: as, praestant prdenti vir, a man of surpassing wisdom; maxim anim hom, a man of the greatest courage. In classic prose, however, the genitive of quality is much less common than the ablative; it is practically confined to expressions of measure or number, to a phrase with ius, and to nouns modified by mgnus, maximus, summus, or tantus. In general the Genitive is used rather of essential, the Ablative of special or incidental characteristics.
The genitive of quality is found in the adjective phrases ius mod, cius mod (equivalent to tlis, such; qulis, of what sort):
ius mod sunt tempestts cnsectae, ut; (B. G. 3.29), such storms followed, that, etc.
The genitive of quality, with numerals, is used to define measures of length, depth, etc. (Genitive of Measure):
fossa trium pedum, a trench of three feet [in depth].
mrus sdecim pedum, a wall of sixteen feet [high].
For the Genitive of Quality used to express indefinite value, see 417.
Partitive Genitive
Words denoting a Part are followed by the Genitive of the Whole to which the part belongs.
Partitive words, followed by the genitive, are
1. Nouns or Pronouns (cf. also 3 below):
pars mlitum, part of the soldiers. quis nostrum, which of us?
nihil erat reliqu, there was nothing left.
nm erum (B. G. 7.66), not a man of them.
mgnam partem erum interfcrunt (id. 2.23), they killed a large part of them. [p. 214]
2. Numerals, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Pronominal words like alius, alter, nllus, etc.:
nus tribnrum, one of the tribunes (see c below).
sapientum octvus (Hor. S. 2.3.296), the eighth of the wise men.
mlia passuum sescenta (B. G. 4.3), six hundred miles (thousands of paces).
mior frtrum, the elder of the brothers.
animlium fortira, the stronger [of] animals.
Subrum gns est long maxima et bellicsissima Germnrum omnium (B. G. 4.1), the tribe of the Suevi is far the largest and most warlike of all the Germans.
alter cnsulum, one of the [two] consuls.
nlla erum (B.G. 4.28), not one of them (the ships).
3. Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns, used as nouns:
tantum spat, so much [of] space.
aliquid nummrum, a few pence (something of coins).
id loc (or locrum), that spot of ground; id temporis, at that time ( 397. a).
plna urbis, the level parts of the town.
quid nov, what news? (what of new?)
paulum frment (B. C. 1.78), a little grain.
pls dolris (B. G. 1.20), more grief.
su aliquid timris (B. C. 2.29), some fear of his own (something of his own fear).
NOTE 1.In classic prose neuter adjectives (not pronominal) seldom take a partitive genitive, except multum, tantum, quantum, and similar words.
NOTE 2.The genitive of adjectives of the third declension is rarely used partitively:nihil nov (genitive), nothing new; but,nihil memorbile (nominative), nothing worth mention (not nihil memorbilis).
4. Adverbs, especially those of Quantity and of Place:
parum t, not much ease (too little of ease).
satis pecniae, money enough (enough of money).
plrimum ttus Galliae equitt valet (B. G. 5.3), is strongest of all Gaul in cavalry.
ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. 1.9), where in the world are we (where of nations)?
ubicumque terrrum et gentium (Verr. 5.143), wherever in the whole world.
rs erat e iam loc ut (Sest. 68), the business had now reached such a point that, etc.
e miserirum (Iug. 14.3), to that [pitch] of misery.
inde loc, next in order (thence of place). [Poetical.]
The poets and later writers often use the partitive genitive after adjectives, instead of a noun in its proper case:
sequimur t, sncte derum (Aen. 4.576), we follow thee, O holy deity. [For sncte deus ( 49. g. N.)]
nigrae lnrum (Plin. H. N. 8.193), black wools. [For nigrae lnae.]
expedt mlitum (Liv. 30.9), light-armed soldiers. [For expedt mlits.]
hominum cncts (Ov. M. 4.631), all men. [For cncts homins; cf. e.] [p. 215]
Cardinal numerals (except mlia) regularly take the Ablative with (ex) or d instead of the Partitive Genitive. So also qudam, a certain one, commonly, and other words occasionally:
nus ex tribns, one of the tribunes. [But also, nus tribnrum (cf. a. 2).]
minumus ex ills (Iug. 11), the youngest of them.
medius ex tribus (ib.), the middle one of the three.
qudam ex mlitibus, certain of the soldiers.
nus d mults (Fin. 2.66), one of the many.
pauc d nostrs cadunt (B. G. 1.15), a few of our men fall.
hominem d comitibus mes, a man of my companions.
Uterque, both (properly each), and quisque, each, with Nouns are regularly used as adjectives in agreement, but with Pronouns take a partitive genitive:
uterque cnsul, both the consuls; but, uterque nostrum, both of us.
nus quisque vestrum, each one of you.
utraque castra, both camps.
Numbers and words of quantity including the whole of any thing take a case in agreement, and not the partitive genitive. So also words denoting a part when only that part is thought of:
ns omns, all of us (we all). [Not omns nostrum.]
quot sunt hosts, how many of the enemy are there?
cav inimcs, qu mult sunt, beware of your enemies, who are many.
mult mlits, many of the soldiers.
nm Rmnus, not one Roman.
Objective Genitive
The Objective Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs.
Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the Genitive of the Object:
|
crits tu, affection for you.
|
dsderium t, longing for rest.
|
|
vacti mneris, relief from duty.
|
grtia benefic, gratitude for kindness.
|
|
fuga malrum, refuge from disaster.
|
precti derum, prayer to the gods.
|
|
contenti honrum, struggle for office.
|
opni virttis, reputation for valor.
|
NOTE.This usage is an extension of the idea of belonging to (Possessive Genitive). Thus in the phrase odium Caesaris, hate of Csar, the hate in a passive sense belongs to Csar, as odium, though in its active sense he is the object of it, as hate (cf. a). The distinction between the Possessive (subjective) and the Objective Genitive is very unstable and is often lost sight of. It is illustrated by the following example: the phrase amor patris, love of a father, may mean love felt by a father, a father's love (subjective genitive), or love towards a father (objective genitive). [p. 216]
The objective genitive is sometimes replaced by a possessive pronoun or other derivative adjective:
mea invidia, my unpopularity (the dislike of which I am the object). [Cf. odium me (Har. Resp. 5), hatred of me.]
laudtor meus (Att. 1.16.5), my eulogist (one who praises me). [Cf. nostr laudtor (id. 1.14.6).]
Cldinum crmen (Mil. 72), the murder of Clodius (the Clodian charge). [As we say, the Nathan murder.]
metus hostlis (Iug. 41), fear of the enemy (hostile fear).
ea quae facibat, tu s fdci facere dcbat (Verr. 5.176), what he was doing, he said he did relying on you (with your reliance).
neque neglegenti tu, neque id odi fcit tu (Ter. Ph. 1016), he did this neither from neglect nor from hatred of you.
Rarely the objective genitive is used with a noun already limited by another genitive:
anim multrum rrum percursi; (Tusc. 4.31), the mind's traversing of many things.
A noun with a preposition is often used instead of the objective genitive:
odium in Antnium (Fam. 10.5.3), hate of Antony.
merita erg m (id. 1.1.1), services to me.
meam in t piettem (id. 1.9.1), my devotion to you.
impetus in urbem (Phil. 12.29), an attack on the city.
excessus vt (Fin. 3.60), departure from life. [Also, excessus vtae, Tusc. 1.27.]
adopti in Domitium (Tac. Ann. 12.25), the adoption of Domitius. [A late and bold extension of this construction.]
NOTE.So also in late writers the dative of reference (cf. 366. b): as,long bell mteria (Tac. H. 1.89), resources for a long war.
GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES
Adjectives requiring an object of reference govern the Objective Genitive.
Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power, sharing, guilt, and their opposites govern the genitive:
avid laudis (Manil. 7), greedy of praise.
fastdisus litterrum, disdaining letters.
iris pertus, skilled in law. [So also the ablative, ire, cf. 418.]
memorem vestr, obltum su (Cat. 4.19), mindful of you, forgetful of himself.
ratinis et rtinis experts (Off. 1.50), devoid of sense and speech.
nostrae cnsutdinis impert; (B. G. 4.22), unacquainted with our customs. [p. 217]
plnus fide, full of good faith.
omnis spe egnam (Tac. Ann. 1.53), destitute of all hope.
tempesttum potentem (Aen. 1.80), having sway over the storms.
impotns rae (Liv. 29.9.9), ungovernable in anger.
conirtinis particips (Cat. 3.14), sharing in the conspiracy.
affnis re capitlis (Verr. 2.2.94), involved in a capital crime.
nsns culpae (Liv. 22.49), innocent of guilt.
Participles in -ns govern the genitive when they are used as adjectives, i.e. when they denote a constant disposition and not a particular act:
s quem tu amantirem cgnvist; (Q. Fr. 1.1.15), if you have become acquainted with any one more fond of you.
multitd nsolns bell (B. C. 2.36), a crowd unused to war.
erat Iugurtha appetns glriae mlitris (Iug. 7), Jugurtha was eager for military glory.
NOTE 1.Participles in -ns, when used as participles, take the case regularly governed by the verb to which they belong: as,Sp. Maelium rgnum appetentem intermit (Cat. M. 56), he put to death Spurius Mlius, who was aspiring to royal power.
NOTE 2.Occasionally participial forms in -ns are treated as participles (see note 1) even when they express a disposition or character: as,virts quam ali ipsam temperantiam dcunt esse, ali obtemperantem temperantiae praecepts et eam subsequentem (Tusc. 4.30), observant of the teachings of temperance and obedient to her.
Verbals in -x ( 251) govern the genitive in poetry and later Latin:
istum et tencem prposit virum (Hor. Od. 3.3), a man just and steadfast to his purpose.
circus capx popul (Ov. A. A. 1.136), a circus big enough to hold the people.
cib vnque capcissimus (Liv. 9.16.13), a very great eater and drinker (very able to contain food and wine).
The poets and later writers use the genitive with almost any adjective, to denote that with reference to which the quality exists (Genitive of Specification):
callidus re mlitris (Tac. H. 2.32), skilled in soldiership.
pauper aquae (Hor. Od. 3.30.11), scant of water.
ntus anim patern (id. 2.2.6), famed for a paternal spirit.
fess rrum (Aen. 1.178), weary of toil.
integer vtae scelerisque prus (Hor. Od. 1.22.1), upright in life, and unstained by guilt.
NOTE.The Genitive of Specification is only an extension of the construction with adjectives requiring an object of reference ( 349). Thus callidus denotes knowledge; pauper, want; prus, innocence; and so these words in a manner belong to the classes under a.
For the Ablative of Specification, the prose construction, see 418. For Adjectives of likeness etc. with the Genitive, apparently Objective, see 385. c. For Adjectives with anim (locative in origin), see 358. [p. 218]
GENITIVE WITH VERBS
Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting
Verbs of remembering and forgetting take either the Accusative or the Genitive of the object:
Memin takes the Accusative when it has the literal sense of retaining in the mind what one has seen, heard, or learned. Hence the accusative is used of persons whom one remembers as acquaintances, or of things which one has experienced.
So oblvscor in the opposite sense,to forget literally, to lose all memory of a thing (very rarely, of a person).
Cinnam memin; (Phil. 5.17), I remember Cinna.
utinam avum tuum meminisss (id. 1.34), oh! that you could remember your grandfather! (but he died before you were born).
Postumium, cius statuam in Isthm meminisse t dcis (Att. 13.32), Postumius, whose statue you say you remember (to have seen) on the Isthmus.
omnia meminit Sron Epicr dogmata (Acad. 2.106), Siron remembers all the doctrines of Epicurus.
multa ab alis audta meminrunt (De Or. 2.355), they remember many things that they have heard from others.
ttam causam obltus est (Brut. 217), he forgot the whole case.
hinc iam oblvscere Gris (Aen. 2.148), from henceforth forget the Greeks (i.e. not merely disregard them, but banish them from your mind, as if you had never known them).
Memin takes the Genitive when it means to be mindful or regardful of a person or thing, to think of somebody or something (often with special interest or warmth of feeling).
So oblvscor in the opposite sense,to disregard, or dismiss from the mind,and the adjective obltus, careless or regardless.
ipse su meminerat (Verr. 2.136), he was mindful of himself (of his own interests).
faciam ut hius loc dieique meique semper memineris (Ter. Eun. 801), I will make you remember this place and this day and me as long as you live.
nec m meminisse pigbit Elissae, dum memor ipse me; (Aen. 4.335), nor shall I feel regret at the thought of Elissa, so long as I remember myself.
meminerint vercundiae (Off. 1.122), let them cherish modesty.
hmnae nfrmittis memin; (Liv. 30.31.6), I remember human weakness.
oblvsc temporum merum, meminisse ctinum (Fam. 1.9.8), to disregard my own interests, to be mindful of the matters at issue.
nec tamen Epicr licet oblvsc; (Fin. 5.3), and yet I must not forget Epicurus.
oblvscere caedis atque incendirum (Cat. 1.6), turn your mind from slaughter and conflagrations (dismiss them from your thoughts). [p. 219]
NOTE 1.With both memin and oblvscor the personal and reflexive pronouns are regularly in the Genitive; neuter pronouns and adjectives used substantively are regularly in the Accusative; abstract nouns are often in the Genitive. These uses come in each instance from the natural meaning of the verbs (as defined above).
NOTE 2.Memin in the sense of mention takes the Genitive: as,eundem Achillam cius supr meminimus (B. C. 3.108), that same Achillas whom I mentioned above.
Reminscor is rare. It takes the Accusative in the literal sense of call to mind, recollect; the Genitive in the more figurative sense of be mindful of:
dulcs morins reminscitur Args (Aen. 10.782), as he dies he calls to mind his beloved Argos.
reminscertur et veteris incommod popul Rmn et prstinae virttis Helvtirum (B. G. 1.13), let him remember both the former discomfiture of the Roman people and the ancient valor of the Helvetians. [A warning, let him bear it in mind (and beware)!]
Recordor, recollect, recall, regularly takes the Accusative:
recordre cnsnsum illum thetr; (Phil. 1.30), recall that unanimous agreement of the [audience in the] theatre.
recordmin omns cvls dissnsins (Cat. 3.24), call to mind all the civil wars.
NOTE.Recordor takes the genitive once (Pison. 12); it is never used with a personal object, but may be followed by d with the ablative of the person or thing (cf. 351. N.):
d t recordor (Scaur. 49), I remember about you.
d ills (lacrims) recordor (Planc. 104), I am reminded of those tears.
Verbs of Reminding
Verbs of reminding take with the Accusative of the person a Genitive of the thing; except in the case of a neuter pronoun, which is put in the accusative (cf. 390. c).
So admone, commone, commonefaci, commonef. But mone with the genitive is found in late writers only.
Catilna admonbat alium egesttis, alium cupidittis suae (Sall. Cat. 21), Catiline reminded one of his poverty, another of his cupidity.
es hc mone; (Cat. 2.20), I give them this warning.
quod vs lx commonet (Verr. 3.40), that which the law reminds you of.
NOTE.All these verbs often take d with the ablative, and the accusative of nouns as well as of pronouns is sometimes used with them:
saepius t admone d syngraph Sittin; (Fam. 8.4.5) I remind you again and again of Sittius's bond.
officium vostrum ut vs mal cgtis commonrier (Plaut. Ps. 150), that you may by misfortune force yourselves to be reminded of your duty. [p. 220]
Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting
Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting, take the Genitive of the Charge or Penalty:
arguit m furt, he accuses me of theft.
peclts damntus (pecniae pblicae damntus) (Flacc. 43), condemned for embezzlement.
vide nn t absoltum esse improbittis, sed ills damnts esse caedis (Verr. 2.1.72), I see, not that you were acquitted of outrage, but that they were condemned for homicide.
Peculiar genitives, under this construction, are
capitis, as in damnre capitis, to sentence to death.
miesttis [laesae], treason (crime against the dignity of the state).
repetundrum [rrum], extortion (lit. of an action for reclaiming money).
vt damntus (or reus), bound [to the payment] of one's vow, i.e. successful in one's effort.
pecniae (damnre, idicre, see note).
dupl etc., as in dupl condemnre, condemn to pay twofold.
NOTE.The origin of these genitive constructions is pointed at by pecniae damnre (Gel. 20.1.38), to condemn to pay money, in a case of injury to the person; quantae pecniae idict essent (id.xx.1.47), how much money they were adjudged to pay, in a mere suit for debt; cnfess aeris ac dbit idict (id.xx.1. 42), adjudged to owe an admitted sum due. These expressions show that the genitive of the penalty comes from the use of the genitive of value to express a sum of money due either as a debt or as a fine. Since in early civilizations all offences could be compounded by the payment of fines, the genitive came to be used of other punishments, not pecuniary. From this to the genitive of the actual crime is an easy transition, inasmuch as there is always a confusion between crime and penalty (cf. Eng. guilty of death). It is quite unnecessary to assume an ellipsis of crmine or idici.
Other constructions for the Charge or Penalty are
1. The Ablative of Price: regularly of a definite amount of fine, and often of indefinite penalties (cf. 416):
Frusints terti parte agr damnt; (Liv. 10.1), the people of Frusino condemned [to forfeit] a third part of their land.
2. The Ablative with d, or the Accusative with inter, in idiomatie expressions:
d ale, for gambling; d ambit, for bribery.
d pecnis repetunds, of extortion (cf. 352. a).
inter scris (Rosc. Am. 90), as an assassin (among the assassins).
d v et miesttis damnt; (Phil. 1.21), convicted of assault and treason.
NOTE.The accusative with ad and in occurs in later writers to express the penalty: as,ad mortem (Tac. Ann. 16.21), to death; ad (in) metalla, to the mines. [p. 221]
Verbs of Feeling
Many verbs of feeling take the Genitive of the object which excites the feeling.
Verbs of pity, as misereor and misersc, take the genitive:
misermin familiae, idics, misermin patris, misermin fl (Flacc. 106), have pity on the family, etc.
miserre anim nn dgna ferentis (Aen. 2.144), pity a soul that endures unworthy things.
miserscite rgis (id. 8.573), pity the king. [Poetical.]
NOTE.But miseror, commiseror, bewail, take the accusative: as,commnem condicinem miserr (Mur. 55), bewail the common lot.
As impersonals, miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet (or pertaesum est), take the genitive of the cause of the feeling and the accusative of the person affected:
qus nfmiae suae neque pudet neque taedet (Verr. 1.35), who are neither ashamed nor weary of their dishonor.
m miseret parietum ipsrum (Phil. 2.69), I pity the very walls.
m cvittis mrum piget taedetque (Iug. 4), I am sick and tired of the ways of the state.
decemvirrum vs pertaesum est (Liv. 3.67), you became tired of the decemvirs.
With miseret, paenitet, etc., the cause of the feeling may be expressed by an infinitive or a clause:
neque m paenitet mortls inimcitis habre (Rab. Post. 32), nor am I sorry to have deadly enmities.
nn dedisse istunc pudet; m quia nn accp piget (Pl. Pseud. 282), he is ashamed not to have given; I am sorry because I have not received.
NOTE.Miseret etc. are sometimes used personally with a neuter pronoun as subject: as,nn t haec pudent (Ter. Ad. 754), do not these things shame you?
The impersonals interest and rfert take the Genitive of the person (rarely of the thing) affected.
The subject of the verb is a neuter pronoun or a substantive clause:
Cld intererat Milnem perre (cf. Mil. 56), it was the interest of Clodius that Milo should die.
aliquid quod illrum magis quam su rtulisse vidrtur (Iug. 111), something which seemed to be more for their interest than his own.
vide enim quid me intersit, quid utrusque nostrum (Fam. 7.23.4), for 1 see what is for my good and for the good of us both. [p. 222]
Instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun the corresponding possessive is used in the ablative singular feminine after interest or rfert:
quid tu id rfert? mgn; (Ter. Ph. 723), how does that concern you? much. [See also the last two examples above.]
vehementer intererat vestr qu patrs estis (Plin. Ep. 4.13.4), it would be very much to your advantage, you who are fathers.
NOTE.This is the only construction with rfert in classic prose, except in one passage in Sallust (see example above).
The accusative with ad is used with interest and rfert to express the thing with reference to which one is interested:
mgn ad honrem nostrum interest (Fam. 16.1), it is of great consequence to our honor.
rfert etiam ad frcts (Varr. R. R. 1.16.6), it makes a difference as to the crop.
NOTE 1.Very rarely the person is expressed by ad and the accusative, or (with rfert) by the dative (probably a popular corruption):
quid id ad m aut ad meam rem rfert (Pl. Per. 513), what difference does that make to me or to my interests?
quid rferat intr ntrae fns vvent (Hor. S. 1.1.49), what difference does it make to me who live within the limits of natural desire?
nn rferre ddecor (Tac. Anu. 15.65), that it makes no difference as to the disgrace.
NOTE 2.The degree of interest is expressed by a genitive of value, an adverb, or an adverbial accusative.
Verbs of Plenty and Want
Verbs of Plenty and Want sometimes govern the genitive (cf. 409. a. N.):
convvium vcnrum comple; (Cat. M. 46, in the mouth of Cato), I fill up the banquet with my neighbors.
implentur veteris Bacch pinguisque fernae (Aen. 1.215), they fill themselves with old wine and fat venison.
n quis auxil egeat (B. G. 6.11), lest any require aid.
quid est quod dfnsinis indigeat (Rosc. Am. 34), what is there that needs defence?
quae ad cnslandum miris ingen et ad ferendum singulris virttis indigent (Fam. 6.4.2), [sorrows] which for their comforting need more ability, and for endurance unusual courage.
NOTE.Verbs of plenty and want more commonly take the ablative (see 409. a, <*>01), except ege, which takes either case, and indige. But the genitive is by a Greek idiom often used in poetry instead of the ablative with all words denoting separation and want (cf. 357. b. 3):
abstint rrum (Hor. Od. 3.27.69), refrain from wrath.
operum solts (id. 3.17.16), free from toils.
dsine mollium querellrum (id. 2.9.17), have done with weak complaints. [p. 223]
Genitive with Special Verbs
The Genitive is used with certain special verbs.
The genitive sometimes follows potior, get possession of; as always in the phrase potr rrum, to be master of affairs:
illus rgn potr; (Fam. 1.7.5), to become master of that kingdom.
Cleanths slem dominr et rrum potr putat (Acad. 2.126), Cleanthes thinks the sun holds sway and is lord of the universe.
NOTE.But potior usually takes the ablative (see 410).
Some other verbs rarely take the genitive
1. By analogy with those mentioned in 354:
neque hius ss veritus fminae prmriae (Ter. Ph. 971), and you had no respect for this high-born lady.
2. As akin to adjectives which take the genitive:
fastdit me (Plaut. Aul. 245), he disdains me. [Cf. fastdisus.]
studet tu (quoted N. D. 3.72), he is zealous for you. [Cf. studisus.]
3. In imitation of the Greek:
istitiaene prius mrer, bellne labrum (Aen. 11.126), shall I rather admire his justice or his toils in war?
neque ille sposit ciceris nec longae invdit avnae (Hor. S. 2.6.84), nor did he grudge his garnered peas, etc. [But cf. invidus, parcus.]
labrum dcipitur (Hor. Od. 2.13.38), he is beguiled of his woes.
m labrum levs (Pl. Rud. 247), you relieve me of my troubles.
The apparent Genitive anim (really Locative) is used with a few verbs and adjectives of feeling and the like:
Antiph m excruciat anim (Ter. Ph. 187), Antipho tortures my mind (me in my mind).
qu pendet anim (Tusc. 4.35), who is in suspense.
m anim fallit (Lucr. 1.922), my mind deceives me.
So, by analogy, dsipibam mentis (Pl. Epid. 138), I was out of my head.
aeger anim, sick at heart; cnfsus anim, disturbed in spirit.
snus mentis aut anim (Pl. Trin. 454), sound in mind or heart.
PECULIAR GENITIVES
Peculiar Genitive constructions are the following:
A poetical genitive occurs rarely in exclamations, in imitation of the Greek (Genitive of Exclamation):
d immortls, mercimn lepid; (Pl. Most. 912), good heavens! what a charming bargain!
foederis heu tacit; (Prop. 4.7.21), alas for the unspoken agreement! [p. 224]
The genitive is often used with the ablatives caus, grti, for the sake of; erg, because of; and the indeclinable nstar, like; also with prdi, the day before; postrdi, the day after; tenus, as far as:
honris caus, with due respect (for the sake of honor).
verb grti, for example.
ius lgis erg, on account of this law.
equus nstar montis (Aen. 2.15), a horse huge as a mountain (the image of a mountain).
laterum tenus (id. 10.210), as far as the sides.
NOTE 1.Of these the genitive with caus is a development from the possessive genitive and resembles that in nmen nsniae ( 343.d). The others are of various origin.
NOTE 2.In prose of the Republican Period prdi and postrdi are thus used only in the expressions prdi (postrdi) ius di, the day before (after) that (cf. the eve, the morrow of that day). Tacitus uses the construction with other words: as,postrdi nsidirum, the day after the plot. For the accusative, see 432. a. Tenus takes also the ablative (p. 136).
DATIVE CASE
The Dative is probably, like the Genitive, a grammatical case, that is, it is a form appropriated to the expression of a variety of relations other than that of the direct object. But it is held by some to be a Locative with the primary meaning of to or towards, and the poetic uses (like it clmor cael, Aen. 5.451) are regarded as survivals of the original use.
In Latin the Dative has two classes of meanings:
1. The Dative denotes an object not as caused by the action, or directly affected by it (like the Accusative), but as reciprocally sharing in the action or receiving it consciously or actively. Thus in dedit puer librum, he gave the boy a book, or fcit mihi iniriam, he did me a wrong, there is an idea of the boy's receiving the book, and of my feeling the wrong. Hence expressions denoting persons, or things with personal attributes, are more likely to be in the dative than those denoting mere things. So in Spanish the dative is used whenever a person is the object of an action; yo veo al hombre, I see [to] the man. This difference between the Accusative and the Dative (i.e. between the Direct and the Indirect Object) depends upon the point of view implied in the verb or existing in the mind of the writer. Hence Latin verbs of similar meaning (to an English mind) often differ in the case of their object (see 367. a).
2. The Dative is used to express the purpose of an action or that for which it serves (see 382). This construction is especially used with abstract expressions, or those implying an action.
These two classes of Datives approach each other in some cases and are occasionally confounded, as in 383, 384.
The uses of the Dative are the following:
| 1. Indirect Object (general use): |
1. With Transitives ( 362). |
|
2. With Intransitives ( 366-372). |
| 2. Special or Idiomatic Uses: |
1. Of Possession (with esse) ( 373). |
|
2. Of Agency (with Gerundive) ( 374). |
|
3. Of Reference (datvus commod) ( 376-381). |
|
4. Of Purpose or End (predicate use) ( 382). |
|
5. Of Fitness etc. (with Adjectives) ( 383, 384). |
[p. 225]
INDIRECT OBJECT
The Dative is used to denote the object indirectly affected by an action.
This is called the Indirect Object ( 274). It is usually denoted in English by the objective with to:
cdite tempor, yield to the occasion.
prvincia Cicern obtigit, the province fell by lot to Cicero.
inimcs nn crdimus, we do not trust [to] our enemies.
INDIRECT OBJECT WITH TRANSITIVES
The Dative of the Indirect Object with the Accusative of the Direct may be used with any transitive verb whose meaning allows (see 274):
d tibi librum, I give you a book.
illud tibi affrm; (Fam. 1.7.5), this I assure you.
commend tibi ius omnia negtia (id. 1.3), I put all his affairs in your hands (commit them to you).
dabis profect misericordiae quod rcundiae negvist; (Deiot. 40), you will surely grant to mercy what you refused to wrath.
litters t mihi stator tuus reddidit (Fam. 2.17), your messenger delivered to me a letter from you.
Many verbs have both a transitive and an intransitive use, and take either the Accusative with the Dative, or the Dative alone:
mihi id aurum crdidit (cf. Plaut. Aul. 15), he trusted that gold to me.
equ n crdite (Aen. 2.48), put not your trust in the horse.
concessit sentus postultin tuae (Mur. 47), the senate yielded to your demand.
concdere amcs quidquid velint (Lael. 38), to grant to friends all they may wish.
Certain verbs implying motion vary in their construction between the Dative of the Indirect Object and the Accusative of the End of Motion ( 426, 427):
1. Some verbs implying motion take the Accusative (usually with ad or in) instead of the Indirect Object, when the idea of motion prevails:
litters qus ad Pompium scrps; (Att. 3.8.4), the letter which I have written [and sent] to Pompey. [Cf. nn qu habrem quod tibi scrberem (id. 4.4A), not that I had anything to write to you] [p. 226]
litterae extempl Rmam scrptae (Liv. 41.16), a letter was immediately written [and sent] to Rome.
hosts in fugam dat (B. G. 5.51), he puts the enemy to flight. [Cf. ut m dem fugae (Att. 7.23), to take to flight.]
omns rem ad Pompium dferr volunt (Fam. 1.1), all wish the matter to be put in the hands of Pompey (referred to Pompey).
2. On the other hand, many verbs of motion usually followed by the Accusative with ad or in, take the Dative when the idea of motion is merged in some other idea:
mihi litters mittere (Fam. 7.12), to send me a letter.
eum librum tibi ms; (id. 7.19), I sent you that book.
nec quicquam quod nn mihi Caesar dtulerit (id. 4.13), and nothing which Csar did not communicate to me.
crs ut mihi vehantur (id. 8.4.5), take care that they be conveyed to me.
cum alius ali subsidium ferrent (B. G. 2.26), while one lent aid to another.
Certain verbs may take either the Dative of the person and the Accusative of the thing, or (in a different sense) the Accusative of the person and the Ablative of the thing
175 :
dnat corns sus, he presents wreaths to his men; or,
dnat sus corns, he presents his men with wreaths.
vincula exuere sibi (Ov. M. 7.772), to shake off the leash (from himself).
omns arms exuit (B. G. 5.51), he stripped them all of their arms.
NOTE 1.Interdc, forbid, takes either (1) the Dative of the person and the Ablative of the thing, or (2) in later writers, the Dative of the person and the Accusative of the thing:
aqu et gn alicui interdcere, to forbid one the use of fire and water. [The regular formula for banishment.]
interdxit histrinibus scaenam (Suet. Dom. 7), he forbade the actors [to appear on] the stage (he prohibited the stage to the actors).
fmins (dat.) purpurae s interdcmus (Liv. 34.7), shall we forbid women the wearing of purple?
NOTE 2.The Dative with the Accusative is used in poetry with many verbs of preventing, protecting, and the like, which usually take the Accusative and Ablative. Intercld and prohibe sometimes take the Dative and Accusative, even in prose:
hsce omns adits ad Sullam intercldere (Rosc. Am. 110), to shut these men off from all access to Sulla (close to them every approach). [Cf. ut commet Caesarem interclderet (B. G. 1.48), to shut Csar off from supplies.]
hunc (oestrum) arcbis pecor (Georg. 3.154), you shall keep this away from the flock. [Cf. illum arcuit Galli (Phil. 5.37), he excluded him from Gaul.]
slstitium pecor dfendite (Ecl. 7.47), keep the summer heat from the flock. [Cf. ut s contumlis inimcrum dfenderet (B. C. 1.22), to defend himself from the slanders of his enemies.] [p. 227]
Verbs which in the active voice take the Accusative and Dative retain the Dative when used in the passive:
nntibantur haec eadem Crin (B. C. 2.37), these same things were announced to Curio. [Active: nntibant (qudam) haec eadem Crin.]
nec docend Caesaris propinqus ius spatium datur, nec tribns plbis su percul dprecand facults tribuitur (id. 1.5), no time is given Csar's relatives to inform him, and no opportunity is granted to the tribunes of the plebs to avert danger from themselves.
prvinciae prvts dcernuntur (id. 1.6), provinces are voted to private citizens.
INDIRECT OBJECT WITH INTRANSITIVES
The Dative of the Indirect Object may be used with any Intransitive verb whose meaning allows:
cdant arma togae (Phil. 2.20), let arms give place to the gown.
Caesar respondet, he replies to Csar.
Caesar respondtur, a reply is given to Csar (Csar is replied to). [Cf. 372.]
respond maxims crminibus (Phil. 2.36), I have answered the heaviest charges.
ut ita cuique veniat (id. 2.119), that it may so turn out to each.
NOTE 1.Intransitive verbs have no Direct Object. The Indirect Object, therefore, in these cases stands alone as in the second example (but cf. 362. a).
NOTE 2.Cd, yield, sometimes takes the Ablative of the thing along with the Dative of the person: as,cdere alicui possessine hortrum (cf. Mil. 75), to give up to one the possession of a garden.
Many phrases consisting of a noun with the copula sum or a copulative verb are equivalent to an intransitive verb and take a kind of indirect object (cf. 367. a. N.2):
auctor esse alicui, to advise or instigate one (cf. persude).
quis huic re testis est (Quinct. 37), who testifies (is witness) to this fact?
is fnis popultinibus fuit (Liv. 2.30.9), this put an end to the raids.
The dative is sometimes used without a copulative verb in a sense approaching that of the genitive (cf. 367. d, 377):
lgtus frtr (Mur. 32), a lieutenant to his brother (i.e. a man assigned to his brother).
ministr sceleribus (Tac. Ann. 6.36), agents of crime. [Cf. sditinis ministr (id. 1.17), agents of sedition.]
miseris sus remedium mortem exspectre (Sall. Cat. 40), to look for death as a cure for their miseries. [Cf. slus merum miserirumst remedium (Ter. Ad. 294).]
NOTE.The cases in a and b differ from the constructions of 367. a. N.2 and 377 in that the dative is more closely connected in idea with some single word to which it serves as an indirect object. [p. 228]
Indirect Object with Special Verbs
Many verbs signifying to favor, help, please, trust, and their contraries; also to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare,
176 take the Dative:
cr mihi invids, why do you envy me?
mihi parcit atque gnscit, he spares and pardons me.
gnsce patri dolr (Liv. 3.48), excuse a father's grief.
subven patriae, opitulre conlgae (Fam. 10.10.2), come to the aid of your country, help your colleague.
mihi nn displicet (Clu. 144), it does not displease me.
nn omnibus servi; (Att. 13.49), I am not a servant to every man.
nn parcam operae (Fam. 13.27), I will spare no pains.
sc mihi persus; (Cat. M. 78), so I have persuaded myself.
mihi Fabius dbbit gnscere s minus ius fmae parcere vidbor quam ante cnsulu; (Tull. 3), Fabius will have to pardon me if I seem to spare his reputation less than I have heretofore regarded it.
huic legin Caesar cnfdbat maxim; (B. G. 1.40.15), in this legion Csar trusted most.
In these verbs the Latin retains an original intransitive meaning. Thus: invidre, to envy, is literally to look askance at; servre is to be a slave to; sudre is to make a thing pleasant (sweet) to.
Some verbs apparently of the same meanings take the Accusative.
Such are iuv, adiuv, help; laed, injure; iube, order; dfici, fail; dlect, please:
hc pulvis oculum meum laedit, this dust hurts my eye. [Cf. multa oculs nocent, many things are injurious to the eyes.]
NOTE 1.Fd and cnfd take also the Ablative ( 431): as,multum ntr loc cnfdbant (B. G. 3.9), they had great confidence in the strength of their position.
NOTE 2.Some common phrases regularly take the dative precisely like verbs of similar meaning. Such arepraest esse, be on hand (cf. adesse); mrem gerere, humor (cf. mrigerr); grtum facere, do a favor (cf. grtificr); dict audins esse, be obedient (cf. oboedre); cui fidem habbat (B. G. 1.19), in whom he had confidence (cf. cnfdbat).
So also many phrases where no corresponding verb exists. Such arebene (male, pulchr, aegr, etc.) esse, be well (ill, etc.) off; iniriam facere, do injustice to; diem dcere, bring to trial (name a day for, etc.); agere grtis, express one's thanks; habre grtiam, feel thankful; referre grtiam, repay a favor; opus esse, be necessary; damnum dare, inflict an injury; acceptum (expnsum) ferre (esse), credit (charge); honrem habre, to pay honor to. [p. 229]
Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intransitively with the Dative without perceptible difference of meaning.
Such are adlor, aemulor, dspr, praestlor, medeor:
adltus est Antni (Nep. Att. 8), he flattered Antony.
adlr Nernem (Tac. Ann. 16.19), to flatter Nero.
pcem nn dsprs (Att. 8.15.3), you do not despair of peace.
salt dsprre vetuit (Clu. 68), he forbade him to despair of safety.
Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intransitively with the Dative with a difference of meaning:
177
part cvium cnsulunt (Off. 1.85), they consult for a part of the citizens.
cum t cnsuluissem (Fam. 11.29), when I had consulted you.
metuns puers (Plaut. Am. 1113), anxious for the children.
nec metuunt des (Ter. Hec. 772), they fear not even the gods. [So also time.]
prspicite patriae (Cat. 4.3), have regard for the state.
prspicere sdem senectt; (Liv. 4.49.14), to provide a habitation for old age. [So also prvide.]
A few verbal nouns (as nsidiae, ambush; obtemperti, obedience) rarely take the dative like the corresponding verbs:
nsidiae cnsul (Sall. Cat. 32), the plot against the consul (cf. nsidior).
obtemperti lgibus (Legg. 1.42), obedience to the laws (cf. obtemper).
sibi ips respnsi; (De Or. 3.207), an answer to himself (cf. responde).
NOTE.In these cases the dative depends immediately upon the verbal force of the noun and not on any complex idea (cf. 366. a, b).
The Dative is used
1. With the impersonals libet (lubet), it pleases, and licet, it is allowed:
quod mihi maxim lubet (Fam. 1.8.3), what most pleases me.
quasi tibi nn licret (id. 6.8), as if you were not permitted.
2. With verbs compounded with satis, bene, and male:
mihi ipse numquam satisfaci; (Fam. 1.1), I never satisfy myself.
optim vir maledcere (Deiot. 28), to speak ill of a most excellent man.
pulchrum est benefacere re pblicae (Sall. Cat. 3), it is a glorious thing to benefit the state.
NOTE.These are not real compounds, but phrases, and were apparently felt as such by the Romans. Thus,satis offici me, satis illrum voluntt qu m hc petvrunt factum esse arbitrbor (Verr. 5.130), I shall consider that enough has been done for my duty, enough for the wishes of those who asked this of me. [p. 230]
3. With grtificor, grtulor, nb, permitt, plaud, prob, stude, supplic, excell:
Pompi s grtificr putant (Fam. 1.1), they suppose they are doing Pompey a service.
grtulor tibi, m Balbe (id. 6.12), I congratulate you, my dear Balbus.
tibi permitt respondre (N. D. 3.4), I give you leave to answer.
mihi plaud ipse dom; (Hor. S. 1.1.66), I applaud myself at home.
cum inimc M. Font vbs ac popul Rmn minentur, amc ac propinqu supplicent vbs (Font. 35), while the enemies of Marcus Fonteius are threatening you and the Roman people too, while his friends and relatives are beseeching you.
NOTE.Misce and iung sometimes take the dative (see 413. a. N.). Haere usually takes the ablative, with or without in, rarely the dative: as,haerentem capit cornam (Hor. S. 1.10.49), a wreath clinging to the head.
The dative is often used by the poets in constructions which would in prose require a noun with a preposition. So especially with verbs of contending ( 413. b):
contendis Homr (Prop. 1.7.3), you vie with Homer. [In prose: cum Homr.]
placitne etiam pgnbis amr (Aen. 4.38), will you struggle even against a love that pleases you?
tibi certat (Ecl. 5.8), vies with you. [tcum.]
differt sermn (Hor. S. 1.4.48), differs from prose. [ sermne, 401.]
later abdidit nsem (Aen. 2.553), buried the sword in his side. [in latere, 430.]
For the Dative instead of ad with the Accusative, see 428. h.
Some verbs ordinarily intransitive may have an Accusative of the direct object along with the Dative of the indirect (cf. 362. a):
cui cum rx crucem minrtur (Tusc. 1.102), and when the king threatened him with the cross.
Crtnsibus obsids impervt (Manil. 35), he exacted hostages of the Cretans.
omnia sibi gnscere (Vell. 2.30), to pardon one's self everything.
Ascanine pater Rmns invidet arcs (Aen. 4.234), does the father envy Ascanius his Roman citadels? [With invide this construction is poetic or late.]
With the passive voice this dative may be retained:
qu iam nunc sanguinem meum sibi indulgr aequum cnset (Liv. 40.15.16), who even now thinks it right that my blood should be granted to him as a favor.
singuls cnsribus dnri trecent impert sunt (Verr. 2.137), three hundred denarii were exacted of each censor.
Scaevolae concessa est fcundiae virts (Quint. 12.3.9), to Scaevola has been granted excellence in oratory. [p. 231]
Indirect Object with Compounds
Many verbs compounded with ao, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, pr, sub, super, and some with circum, admit the Dative of the indirect object:
neque enim adsentior es (Lael. 13), for I do not agree with them.
quantum ntra hominis pecudibus antecdit (Off. 1.105), so far as man's nature is superior to brutes.
s sibi ipse cnsentit (id. 1.5), if he is in accord with himself.
virtts semper volupttibus inhaerent (Fin. 1.68), virtues are always connected with pleasures.
omnibus negtis nn interfuit slum sed praefuit (id. 1.6), he not only had a hand in all matters, but took the lead in them.
tempestt obsequ artis est (Fam. 1.9.21), it is a point of skill to yield to the weather.
nec umquam succumbet inimcs (Deiot. 36), and he will never yield to his foes.
cum et Brtus cuilibet ducum praeferendus vidrtur et Vatnius nll nn esset postferendus (Vell. 2.69), since Brutus seemed worthy of being put before any of the generals and Vatinius deserved to be put after all of them.
In these cases the dative depends not on the preposition, but on the compound verb in its acquired meaning. Hence, if the acquired meaning is not suited to an indirect object, the original construction of the simple verb remains.
Thus in convocat sus, he calls his men together, the idea of calling is not so modified as to make an indirect object appropriate. So hominem interficere, to make way with a man (kill him). But in praeficere impertrem bell, to put a man as commander-in-chief in charge of a war, the idea resulting from the composition is suited to an indirect object (see also b, 371, 388. b).
NOTE 1.Some of these verbs, being originally transitive, take also a direct object: as,n offermus ns perculs (Off. 1.83), that we may not expose ourselves to perils.
NOTE 2.The construction of 370 is not different in its nature from that of 362, 366, and 367; but the compound verbs make a convenient group.
Some compounds of ad, ante, ob, with a few others, have acquired a transitive meaning, and take the accusative (cf. 388. b):
178
ns oppgnat (Fam. 1.1), he opposes us.
quis audeat bene comittum aggred; (Phil. 12.25), who would dare encounter a man well attended?
mnus obre (Lael. 7), to attend to a duty. [p. 232]
The adjective obvius and the adverb obviam with a verb take the dative:
s ille obvius e futrus nn erat (Mil. 47), if he was not intending to get in his way.
mihi obviam vnist; (Fam. 2.16.3), you came to meet me.
When place or motion is distinctly thought of, the verbs mentioned in 370 regularly take a noun with a preposition:
inhaeret in visceribus (Tusc. 4.24), it remains fixed in the vitals.
homine coninct mcum (Tull. 4), a man united to me.
cum hc concurrit ipse Eumens (Nep. Eum. 4.1), with him Eumenes himself engages in combat (runs together).
inserite oculs in criam (Font. 43), fix your eyes on the senate-house.
gnis qu est ob s offsus (Tim. 14), the fire which is diffused before the sight.
obicitur contr istrum impets Macedonia (Font. 44), Macedonia is set to withstand their attacks. [Cf. s quis vbs error obiectus (Caec. 5), if any mistake has been caused you.]
in segetem flamma incidit (Aen. 2.304), the fire falls upon the standing corn.
NOTE.But the usage varies in different authors, in different words, and often in the same word and the same sense. The Lexicon must be consulted for each verb.
Intransitive verbs that govern the dative are used impersonally in the passive ( 208. d). The dative is retained (cf. 365):
cui parc potuit (Liv. 21.14), who could be spared?
nn modo nn invidtur ill aett vrum etiam favtur (Off. 2.45), that age (youth) not only is not envied, but is even favored.
tempor serviendum est (Fam. 9.7), we must serve the exigency of the occasion.
NOTE.In poetry the personal construction is sometimes found: as,cr invideor (Hor. A. P. 56), why am I envied?
Dative of Possession
The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote Possession:
est mihi dom pater (Ecl. 3.33), I have a father at home (there is to me).
homin cum de similitd est (Legg. 1.25), man has a likeness to God.
quibus ops nllae sunt (Sall. Cat. 37), [those] who have no wealth.
NOTE.The Genitive or a Possessive with esse emphasizes the possessor; the Dative, the fact of possession: as,liber est meus, the book is MINE (and no one's else): est mihi liber, I HAVE a book (among other things).
With nmen est, and similar expressions, the name is often put in the Dative by a kind of apposition with the person; but the Nominative is also common: [p. 233]
(1) cui fricn fuit cgnmen (Liv. 25.2), whose (to whom) surname was Africanus.
puer ab inopi Egeri inditum nmen (id. 1.34), the name Egerius was given the boy from his poverty.
(2) puer nmen est Mrcus, the boy's name is Marcus (to the boy is, etc.).
cui nmen Arethsa (Verr. 4.118), [a fount] called Arethusa.
NOTE.In early Latin the dative is usual; Cicero prefers the nominative, Livy the dative; Sallust uses the dative only. In later Latin the genitive also occurs (cf. 343. d): as,Q. Metell Macedonic nmen inditum est (Vell. 1.11), to Quintus Metellus the name of Macedonicus was given.
Dsum takes the dative; so occasionally absum (which regularly has the ablative):
hc num Caesar dfuit (B.G. 4.26), this only was lacking to Csar.
quid huic abesse poterit (De Or. 1.48), what can be wanting to him?
Dative of the Agent
The Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive to denote the person on whom the necessity rests:
haec vbs prvincia est dfendenda (Manil. 14), this province is for you to defend (to be defended by you).
mihi est pgnandum, I have to fight (i.e. the need of fighting is to me: cf. mihi est liber, I have a book, 373. N.).
This is the regular way of expressing the agent with the Second or Passive Periphrastic Conjugation ( 196).
NOTE 1.The Ablative of the Agent with ab ( 405) is sometimes used with the Second Periphrastic Conjugation when the Dative would be ambiguous or when a stronger expression is desired:
quibus est vbs cnsulendum (Manil. 6), for whom you must consult. [Here two datives, quibus and vbs, would have been ambiguous.]
rem ab omnibus vbs prvidendam (Rab. 4), that the matter must be attended to by all of you. [The dative might mean for all of you.]
NOTE 2.The Dative of the Agent is either a special use of the Dative of Possession or a development of the Dative of Reference ( 376).
The Dative of the Agent is common with perfect participles (especially when used in an adjective sense), but rare with other parts of the verb:
mihi dlbertum et cnstittum est (Leg. Agr. 1.25), I have deliberated and resolved (it has been deliberated by me).
mihi rs prvsa est (Verr. 4.91), the matter has been provided for by me.
sc dissimillims bstiols commniter cibus quaeritur (N. D. 2.123), so by very different creatures food is sought in common. [p. 234]
The Dative of the Agent is used by the poets and later writers with almost any passive verb:
neque cernitur ll (Aen. 1.440), nor is seen by any.
flx est dicta sorr (Ov. Fast. 3.1.597), she was called happy by her sister.
Aelia Paetina Narciss fovbtur (Tac. Ann. 12.1), lia Ptina was favored by Narcissus.
The dative of the person who sees or thinks is regularly used after videor, seem:
vidtur mihi, it seems (or seems good) to me.
ds aliter vsum [est] (Aen. 2.428), it seemed otherwise to the gods.
videor mihi perspicere ipsus animum (Fam. 4.13.5), I seem (to myself) to see the soul of the man himself.
NOTE.The verb probre, approve (originally a mercantile word), takes a Dative of Reference ( 376), which has become so firmly attached that it is often retained with the passive, seemingly as Dative of Agent:
haec sententia et ill et nbs probbtur (Fam. 1.7.5), this view met both his approval and mine (was made acceptable both to him and to me).
hc cnsilium plrsque nn probbtur (B. C. 1.72), this plan was not approved by the majority. [But also, cnsilium cncts probbtur (id. 1.74).]
Dative of Reference
The Dative often depends, not on any particular word, but on the general meaning of the sentence (Dative of Reference).
The dative in this construction is often called the Dative of Advantage or Disadvantage,
179 as denoting the person or thing for whose benefit or to whose prejudice the action is performed.
tibi ars (Plaut. Merc. 71), you plough for yourself.
tus rs tibi habt; (Plaut. Trin. 266), keep your goods to yourself (formula of divorce).
laudvit mihi frtrem, he praised my brother (out of regard for me; laudvit frtrem meum would imply no such motive).
merits mactvit honrs, taurum Neptn, taurum tibi, pulcher Apoll; (Aen. 3.118), he offered the sacrifices due, a bull to Neptune, a bull to thee, beautiful Apollo.
NOTE.In this construction the meaning of the sentence is complete without the dative, which is not, as in the preceding constructions, closely connected with any single word. Thus the Dative of Reference is easily distinguishable in most instances even when the sentence consists of only two words, as in the first example.
The Dative of Reference is often used to qualify a whole idea, instead of the Possessive Genitive modifying a single word: [p. 235]
iter Poens vel corporibus sus obstruere (Cat. M. 75), to block the march of the Carthaginians even with their own bodies (to block, etc., for the disadvantage of, etc.).
s in cnspectum nauts dedit (Verr. 5.86), he put himself in sight of the sailors (he put himself to the sailors into sight).
verstur mihi ante oculs (id. 5.123), it comes before my eyes (it comes to me before the eyes).
The Dative is used of the person from whose point of view an opinion is stated or a situation or a direction is defined.
This is often called the Dative of the Person Judging,
180 but is merely a weakened variety of the Dative of Reference. It is used
1. Of the mental point of view (in my opinion, according to me. etc.):
Plat mihi nus nstar est centum mlium (Brut. 191), in my opinion (to me) Plato alone is worth a hundred thousand.
erit ille mihi semper deus (Ecl. 1.7), he will always be a god to me (in my regard).
quae est ista servits tam clr homin (Par. 41), what is that slavery according to the view of this distinguished man?
2. Of the local point of view (as you go in etc.). In this use the person is commonly denoted indefinitely by a participle in the dative plural:
oppidum prmum Thessaliae venientibus ab pr; (B. C. 3.80), the first town of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (to those coming, etc.).
laev parte sinum intrant (Liv. 26.26), on the left as you sail up the gulf (to one entering).
est urbe gresss tumulus (Aen. 2.713), there is, as you come out of the city, a mound (to those having come out).
NOTE.The Dative of the Person Judging is (by a Greek idiom) rarely modified by vlns, volns (participles of nl, vol), or by some similar word:
ut quibusque bellum invts aut cupientibus erat (Tac. Ann. 1.59), as each might receive the war reluctantly or gladly.
ut mlitibus labs volentibus esset (Iug. 100), that the soldiers might assume the task willingly.
The Dative of Reference is used idiomatically without any verb in colloquial questions and exclamations:
qu mihi fortnam (Hor. Ep. 1.5.12), of what use to me is fortune?
unde mihi lapidem (Hor. S. 2.7.116), where can I get a stone?
qu tibi, Till; (id. 1.6.24), what use for you, Tillius? [p. 236]
The dative of reference is sometimes used after interjections:
ei (hei) mihi (Aen. 2.274), ah me!
vae victs (Liv. 5.48), woe to the conquered.
em tibi, there, take that (there for you)! [Cf. 380.]
NOTE.To express FORmeaning instead of, in defence of, in behalf ofthe ablative with pr is used:
pr patri mor; (Hor. Od. 3.2.13), to die for one's country.
ego b pr t (Plaut. Most. 1131), I will go instead of you.
Ethical Dative
The Dative of the Personal Pronouns is used to show a certain interest felt by the person indicated.
181
This construction is called the Ethical Dative.
182 It is really a faded variety of the Dative of Reference.
quid mihi Celsus agit (Hor. Ep. 1.3.15), pray what is Celsus doing?
su sibi servit patr; (Plaut. Capt. 5), he serves his own father.
at tibi repente venit mihi Cannius (Fam. 9.2), but, look you, of a sudden comes to me Caninius.
hem tibi talentum argent; (Pl. Truc. 60), hark ye, a talent of silver.
quid tibi vs, what would you have (what do you wish for yourself)?
Dative of Separation
Many verbs of taking away and the like take the Dative (especially of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation ( 401).
Such are compounds of ab, d, ex, and a few of ad:
aureum e dtrxit amiculum (N. D. 3.83), he took from him his cloak of gold.
hunc mihi terrrem ripe (Cat. 1.18), take from me this terror.
vtam adulscentibus vs aufert (Cat. M. 71), violence deprives young men of life.
nihil enim tibi dtrxit sentus (Fam. 1.5B), for the senate has taken nothing from you.
nec mihi hunc errrem extorqur vol; (Cat. M. 85), nor do I wish this error wrested from me.
NOTE.The Dative of Separation is a variety of the Dative of Reference. It represents the action as done to the person or thing, and is thus more vivid than the Ablative [p. 237]
The distinct idea of motion requires the ablative with a prepositionthus generally with names of things ( 426. 1):
illum ex percul ripuit (B. G. 4.12), he dragged him out of danger.
NOTE.Sometimes the dative of the person and the ablative of the thing with a preposition are both used with the same verb: as,mihi praeda d manibus ripitur (Verr. 2.1.142), the booty is wrested from my hands.
Dative of the Purpose or End
The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often with another Dative of the person or thing affected.
This use of the dative, once apparently general, remains in only a few constructions, as follows:
1. The dative of an abstract noun is used to show that for which a thing serves or which it accomplishes, often with another dative of the person or thing affected:
re pblicae cld sunt (Iug. 85.43), they are ruin to the state (they are for a disaster to the state).
mgn su nostrs fuit (B. G. 4.25), it was of great service to our men (to our men for great use).
tertiam aciem nostrs subsidi msit (id. 1.52), he sent the third line as a relief to our men.
sus salt fuit (id. 7.50), he was the salvation of his men.
vnit facile quod ds cord esset (Liv. 1.39), that came to pass easily which was desired by the gods (was for a pleasure [lit. heart] to the gods).
NOTE 1.This construction is often called the Dative of Service, or the Double Dative construction. The verb is usually sum. The noun expressing the end for which is regularly abstract and singular in number and is never modified by an adjective, except one of degree (mgnus, minor, etc.), or by a genitive.
NOTE 2.The word frg used as an adjective is a dative of this kind:
cgis m dcere inimcum Frg (Font. 39), you compel me to call my enemy Honest.
homins satis forts et pln frg (Verr. 3.67), men brave enough and thoroughly honest. Cf. er frg bonae (Plaut. Pseud. 468), I will be good for something. [See 122. b.]
2. The Dative of Purpose of concrete nouns is used in prose in a few military expressions, and with freedom in poetry :
locum castrs dligit (B. G. 7.16), he selects a site for a camp.
receptu canere, to sound a retreat (for a retreat).
receptu sgnum (Phil. 13.15), the signal for retreat.
optvit locum rgn (Aen. 3.109), he chose a place for a kingdom.
locum nsidis circumspectre (Liv. 21.53), to look about for a place for an ambush. [Cf. locum sditinis quaerere (id. 3.46).]
For the Dative of the Gerundive denoting Purpose, see 505. b. [p. 238]
Dative with Adjectives
The Dative is used after Adjectives or Adverbs, to denote that to which the given quality is directed, for which it exists, or towards which it tends.
NOTE.The dative with certain adjectives is in origin a Dative of Purpose or End.
The Dative is used with adjectives (and a few Adverbs) of fitness, nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites:
183
nihil est tam ntrae aptum (Lael. 17), nothing is so fitted to nature.
nihil difficile amant put; (Or. 33), I think nothing hard to a lover.
castrs idneum locum dlgit (B. G. 1.49), he selected a place suitable for a camp.
tribn nbs sunt amc; (Q. Fr. 1.2.16), the tribunes are friendly to us.
esse propitius potest nmin (N. D. 1.124), he can be gracious to nobody.
mgns autem virs prosperae semper omns rs (id. 2.167), but to great men everything is always favorable.
sds huic nostr nn importna sermn (De Or. 3.18), a place not unsuitable for this conversation of ours.
cui fund erat affnis M. Tullius (Tull. 14), to which estate Marcus Tullius was next neighbor.
convenienter ntrae vvere (Off. 3.13), to live in accordance with nature (ὁμολογουμένως τῇ φύσει).
NOTE 1.So, also, in poetic and colloquial use, with dem: as,invtum qu servat idem facit occdent (Hor. A. P. 467), he who saves a man against his will does the same as one who kills him.
NOTE 2.Adjectives of likeness are often followed by atque (ac), as. So also the adverbs aequ, pariter, similiter, etc. The pronoun dem has regularly atque or a relative:
s parem sapientiam habet ac formam (Plaut. Mil. 1251), if he has sense equal to his beauty (like as his beauty).
t suspicor esdem rbus quibus m ipsum commovr; (Cat. M. 1), I suspect you are disturbed by the same things by which I am.
Other constructions are sometimes found where the dative might be expected:
Adjectives of fitness or use take oftener the Accusative with ad to denote the purpose or end; but regularly the Dative of persons:
aptus ad rem mlitrem, fit for a soldier's duty.
locus ad nsidis aptior (Mil. 53), a place fitter for lying in wait.
nbs tile est ad hanc rem (cf. Ter. And. 287), it is of use to us for this thing. [p. 239]
Adjectives and nouns of inclination and the like may take the Accusative with in or erg:
cmis in uxrem (Hor. Ep. 2.2.133), kind to his wife.
dvna bonits erg homins (N. D. 2.60), the divine goodness towards men.
d benevolenti quam quisque habeat erg ns (Off. 1.47), in regard to each man's good will which he has towards us.
grtirem m esse in t (Fam. 11.10), that I am more grateful to you.
Some adjectives of likeness, nearness, belonging, and a few others, ordinarily requiring the Dative, often take the Possessive Genitive:
184
quod ut ill proprium ac perpetuum sit ... optre dbtis (Manil. 48), which you ought to pray may be secure (his own) and lasting to him. [Dative.]
fuit hc quondam proprium popul Rmn (id. 32), this was once the peculiar characteristic of the Roman people. [Genitive.]
cum utrque ss maxim necessrius (Att. 9.7A), since you are especially bound to both. [Dative.]
prcrtor aequ utrusque necessrius (Quinct. 86), an agent alike closely connected with both. [Genitive.]
1. The genitive is especially used with these adjectives when they are used wholly or approximately as nouns:
amcus Cicern, friendly to Cicero. But, Cicernis amcus, a friend of Cicero; and even, Cicernis amcissimus, a very great friend of Cicero.
crticus et ius aequlis paean (Or. 215), the cretic and its equivalent the pan.
h erant affns istus (Verr. 2.36), these were this man's fellows.
2. After similis, like, the genitive is more common in early writers. Cicero regularly uses the genitive of persons, and either the genitive or the dative of things. With personal pronouns the genitive is regular (me, tu, etc.), and also in vr similis, probable:
domin similis es (Ter. Eun. 496), you're like your master (your master's like).
ut essmus simils derum (N. D. 1.91), that we might be like the gods.
est similis mirum suom (Ter. Ad. 411), he's like his ancestors.
patris similis esse (Off. 1.121), to be like his father.
smia quam similis turpissima bstia nbs (N. D. 1.97, quoted from Enn.), how like us is that wretched beast the ape!
s enim hc ill simile sit, est illud huic (id. 1.90), for if this is like that, that is like this.
NOTE.The genitive in this construction is not objective like those in 349, but possessive (cf. 343).
For the Dative or Accusative with propior, proximus, propius, proxim, see 432. a. [p. 240]
ACCUSATIVE CASE
The Accusative originally served to connect the noun more or less loosely with the verb-idea, whether expressed by a verb proper or by a verbal noun or adjective. Its earliest use was perhaps to repeat the verb-idea as in the Cognate Accusative (run a race, fight a battle, see 390). From this it would be a short step to the Factitive Accusative (denoting the result of an act, as in make a table, drill a hole, cf. 273. N.1). From this last could easily come the common accusative (of Affecting, break a table, plug a hole, see 387. a). Traces of all these uses appear in the language, and the loose connection of noun with verb-idea is seen in the use of stems in composition (cf. 265.3).
185 ). It is impossible, however, to derive the various constructions of the accusative with certainty from any single function of that case.
The uses of the accusative may be classified as follows:
|
I. Primary Object: |
1. Directly affected by the Action ( 387. a). |
|
2. Effect of the Action Thing produced ( 387. a). Cognate Accusative ( 390). |
|
II. Two Accusatives: |
1. Predicate Accusative (Of Naming etc.) ( 393). |
|
2. Of Asking or Teaching ( 396). |
|
3. Of Concealing ( 396. c). |
|
III. Idiomatic Uses: |
1. Adverbial ( 397. a). |
|
2. Of Specification (Greek Accusative) ( 397. b). |
|
3. Of Extent and Duration ( 423, 425). |
|
4. Of Exclamation ( 397. d). |
|
5. Subject of Infinitive ( 397. e). |
Direct Object
The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Accusative ( 274).
The Accusative of the Direct Object denotes (1) that which is directly affected, or (2) that which is caused or produced by the action of the verb:
(1) Brtus Caesarem interfcit, Brutus killed Csar.
(2) aedem facere, to make a temple. [Cf. proelium pgnre, to fight a battle, 390.]
NOTE.There is no definite line by which transitive verbs can be distinguished from intransitive. Verbs which usually take a direct object (expressed or implied) are called transitive, but many of these are often used intransitively or absolutely. Thus time, I fear, is transitive in the sentence inimcum time, I fear my enemy, but intransitive (absolute) in nl timre, don't be afraid. Again, many verbs are transitive in one sense and intransitive in another: as,Helvtis supervrunt Rmn, the Romans overcame the Helvetians; but nihil superbat, nothing remained (was left over). So also many verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively with a slight change of meaning: as,rds, you are laughing; but m rds, you're laughing at me. [p. 241]
The object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes its subject in the passive, and is put in the nominative ( 275):
Brtus Caesarem interfcit, Brutus killed Csar.
Caesar Brt interfectus est, Csar was killed by Brutus.
domum aedificat, he builds a house.
domus aedifictur, the house is building (being built).
Certain special verbs require notice.
Many verbs apparently intransitive, expressing feeling, take an accusative, and may be used in the passive:
meum csum lctumque dolurunt (Sest. 145), they grieved at my calamity and sorrow.
s nn Acrisium rsissent Iuppiter et Venus (Hor. Od. 3.16.5), if Jupiter and Venus had not laughed at Acrisius.
rdtur ab omn convent; (Hor. S. 1.7.22), he is laughed at by the whole assembly.
For the Cognate Accusative with verbs of taste, smell, and the like, see 390. a.
NOTE.Some verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively (especially in poetry) from a similarity of meaning with other verbs that take the accusative:
gemns gnminiam (Georg. 3.226), groaning at the disgrace. [Cf. dole.]
festnre fugam (Aen. 4.575), to hasten their flight. [Cf. acceler.]
cmpts rsit crns (Hor. Od. 4.9.13), she burned with love for his well-combed locks. [Cf. adam.]
Verbs of motion, compounds of circum, trns, and praeter, and a few others, frequently become transitive, and take the accusative (cf. 370. b):
mortem obre, to die (to meet death).
cnsultum ineunt (Liv. 2.28), they enter upon the consulship.
nminem convn; (Fam. 9.14), I met no one.
s nsulam adsset (B. G. 4.20), if he should go to the island.
trnsre flmen (id. 2.23), to cross the river (cf. 395).
cvs qu circumstant sentum (Cat. 1.21), the citizens who stand about the senate.
NOTE.Among such verbs are some compounds of ad, in, per, and sub.
The accusative is used after the impersonals decet, ddecet, dlectat, iuvat, oportet, fallit, fugit, praeterit:
ita ut vs decet (Plaut. Most. 729), so as befits you.
m pedibus dlectat claudere verba (Hor. S. 2.1.28), my delight is (it pleases me) to arrange words in measure.
nisi m fallit, unless I am mistaken (unless it deceives me).
ivit m tibi tus litters prfuisse (Fam. 5.21.3), it pleased me that your literary studies had profited you.
t nn praeterit (Fam. 1.8.2), it does not escape your notice. [p. 242]
NOTE 1.So after later in poetry and post-classical prose: as,latet plrsque (Plin. N. H. 2.82), it is unknown to most persons.
NOTE 2.These verbs are merely ordinary transitives with an idiomatic signification. Hence most of them are also used personally.
NOTE 3.Decet and latet sometimes take the dative:
ita nbs decet (Ter. Ad. 928), thus it befits us.
hostque Rma latet (Sil. It. 12.614), and Rome lies hidden from the foe.
A few verbs in isolated expressions take the accusative from a forcing of their meaning. Such expressions are:
ferre foedus, to strike a treaty (i.e. to sanction by striking down a victim).
vincere idicium (spnsinem, rem, hc), to prevail on a trial, etc. [As if the case were a difficulty to overcome; cf. vincere iter, Aen. 6.688.]
aequor nvigre (Aen. 1.67), to sail the sea. [As if it were trnsre, 388. b.]
maria aspera ir; (id. 6.351), I swear by the rough seas (cf. id. 6.324). [The accusative with verbs of swearing is chiefly poetic.]
nocts dormre, to sleep [whole] nights (to spend in sleep).
NOTE 1.These accusatives are of various kinds. The last example approaches the cognate construction (cf. the second example under 390).
NOTE 2.In early and popular usage some nouns and adjectives derived from transitive verbs retain verbal force sufficient to govern the accusative:
quid tibi istanc tcti est (Plaut. Poen. 1308), what business have you to touch her? [Cf. tang.]
mrbund bstiam (Ap. Met. 4.16), full of wonder at the creature. [Cf. mror.]
vtbundus castra (Liv. 25.13), trying to avoid the camp. [Cf. vt.]
Many verbs ordinarily transitive may be used absolutely, having their natural object in the ablative with d ( 273. N. 2):
priusquam Pompnius d ius advent cgnsceret (B. C. 3.101), before Pomponius could learn of his coming. [Cf. ius advent cgnit, his arrival being discovered.]
For Accusative and Genitive after Impersonals, see 354. b. For the Accusative after the impersonal Gerundive with esse, see 500. 3.
Cognate Accusative
An intransitive verb often takes the Accusative of a noun of kindred meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some other manner.
This construction is called the Cognate Accusative or Accusative of Kindred Signification:
ttirem vtam vvere (Verr. 2.118), to live a safer life.
tertiam iam aettem hominum vvbat (Cat. M. 31), he was now living the third generation of men.
servittem servre, to be in slavery.
core societtem, to [go together and] form an alliance. [p. 243]
Verbs of taste, smell, and the like take a cognate accusative of the quality:
vnum redolns (Phil. 2.63), smelling [of] wine.
herbam mella sapiunt (Plin. H. N. 11.18), the honey tastes [of] grass.
olre malitiam (Rosc. Com. 20), to have the odor of malice.
Cordubae nts pots, pingue quiddam sonantibus atque peregrnum (Arch. 26), to poets born at Cordova, whose speech had a somewhat thick and foreign accent.
The cognate accusative is often loosely used by the poets:
huic errr similem [errrem] nsnre (Hor. S. 2.3.62), to suffer a delusion like this.
saltre Cyclpa (id. 1.5.63), to dance the Cyclops (represent in dancing).
Bacchnlia vvere (Iuv. 2.3), to live in revellings.
Amaryllida resonre (Ecl. 1.5), to recho [the name of] Amaryllis.
intonuit laevum (Aen. 2.693), it thundered on the left.
dulce rdentem, dulce loquentem (Hor. Od. 1.22.23), sweetly smiling, sweetly prattling.
acerba tuns (Aen. 9.794), looking fiercely. [Cf. Eng. to look daggers.]
torvum clmat (id. 7.399), he cries harshly.
A neuter pronoun or an adjective of indefinite meaning is very common as cognate accusative (cf. 214. d, 397. a):
Empedocls multa alia peccat (N. D. 1.29), Empedocles commits many other errors.
ego illud adsentior Theophrast; (De Or. 3.184), in this I agree with Theophrastus.
multum t ista fefellit opni; (Verr. 2.1.88), you were much deceived in this expectation (this expectation deceived you much).
pls vale, I have more strength.
plrimum potest, he is strongest.
quid m ista laedunt (Leg. Agr. 2.32), what harm do those things do me?
hc t mone, I give you this warning (cf. d. N.1).
id laetor, I rejoice at this (cf. d. N.1).
quid moror, why do I delay?
quae homins arant, nvigant, aedificant (Sall. Cat. 2.7), what men do in ploughing, sailing, and building.
So in many common phrases:
s quid ille s velit (B. G. 1.34), if he should want anything of him (if he should want him in anything).
numquid, Geta, aliud m vs (Ter. Ph. 151), can I do anything more for you, Geta (there is nothing you want of me, is there)? [A common form of leave-taking.]
quid est quod, etc., why is it that, etc.? [Cf. hc erat quod (Aen. 2.664), was it for this that, etc.?] [p. 244]
NOTE 1.In these cases substantives with a definite meaning would be in some other construction:
in hc edem peccat, he errs in this same point.
bons rbus laetr, to rejoice at prosperity. [Also: in, d, or ex.]
d testment monre, to remind one of the will. [Later: genitive, 351.]
offic admonre, to remind one of his duty. [Also: d offici.]
NOTE 2.In some of these cases the connection of the accusative with the verb has so faded out that the words have become real adverbs: as,multum, pls, plrimum; plrumque, for the most part, generally; cterum, ctera, for the rest, otherwise, but; prmum, first; nihil, by no means, not at all; aliquid, somewhat; quid, why; facile, easily. So in the comparative of adverbs ( 218). But the line cannot be sharply drawn, and some of the examples under b may be classed as adverbial.
TWO ACCUSATIVES
Some transitive verbs take a second accusative in addition to their Direct Object.
This second accusative is either (1) a Predicate Accusative or (2) a Secondary Object.
Predicate Accusative
An accusative in the Predicate referring to the same person or thing as the Direct Object, but not in apposition with it, is called a Predicate Accusative.
Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, showing, and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the direct object:
Spartace, quem enim t potius appellem (Phil. 13.22), O Spartacus, for what else shall I call you (than Spartacus)?
Cicernem cnsulem crere, to elect Cicero consul.
m augurem nminvrunt (Phil. 2.4), they nominated me for augur.
cum grtis ageret quod s cnsulem fcisset (De Or. 2.268), when he thanked him because he had made him consul (supported his candidacy).
hominem prae s nminem putvit (Rosc. Am. 135), he thought nobody a man in comparison with himself.
ducem s praebuit (Vat. 33), he offered himself as a leader.
NOTE.The predicate accusative may be an adjective: as,homins mts reddidit et mnsuts (Inv. 1.2), has made men mild and gentle.
In changing from the active voice to the passive, the Predicate Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative ( 284):
rx ab sus appelltur (B. G. 8.4), he is called king by his subjects. [Active<*> su eum rgem appellant.] [p. 245]
Secondary Object
The Accusative of the Secondary Object is used (along with the direct object) to denote something more remotely affected by the action of the verb.
Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take (in addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, originally governed by the preposition:
Caesar Germns flmen tricit (B. C. 1.83), Csar throws the Germans across the river.
idem is irandum adigit Afrnium (id. 1.76), he exacts the same oath from Afranius.
qus Pompius omnia sua praesidia circumdxit (id. 3.61), whom Pompey conducted through all his garrison.
NOTE 1.This construction is common only with trdc, trici, and trnsport. The preposition is sometimes repeated with compounds of trns, and usually with compounds of the other prepositions. The ablative is also used:
dnec rs sus trns Halyn flmen tricerent (Liv. 38.25), till they should get their possessions across the river Halys.
(exercitus) Pad triectus Cremnam (id. 21.56), the army was conveyed across the Po to Cremona (by way of the Po, 429. a).
NOTE 2.The secondary object may be retained with a passive verb: as,Belgae Rhnum trduct sunt (B. G. 2.4), the Belgians were led over the Rhine.
NOTE 3.The double construction indicated in 395 is possible only when the force of the preposition and the force of the verb are each distinctly felt in the compound, the verb governing the direct, and the preposition the secondary object.
But often the two parts of the compound become closely united to form a transitive verb of simple meaning. In this case the compound verb is transitive solely by virtue of its prepositional part and can have but one accusative,the same which was formerly the secondary object, but which now becomes the direct. So trici comes to mean either (1) to pierce (anybody) [by hurling] or (2) to cross (a river etc.):
gladi hominem tricit, he pierced the man with a sword. [Here iaci has lost all transitive force, and serves simply to give the force of a verb to the meaning of trns, and to tell the manner of the act.]
Rhodanum tricit, he crossed the Rhone. [Here iaci has become simply a verb of motion, and trici is hardly distinguishable from trnse.]
In these examples hominem and Rhodanum, which would be secondary objects if tricit were used in its primary signification, have become the direct objects. Hence in the passive construction they become the subjects and are put in the nominative:
hom triectus est gladi, the man was pierced with a sword.
Rhodanus triectus est, the Rhone was crossed.
The poetical triectus lra (Aen. 2.273), pierced with thongs, comes from a mixture of two constructions: (1) eum tricit lra, he rove thongs through him,
186 and (2) eum tricit lrs, he pierced him with thongs. In putting the sentence into a passive form, the direct object of the former (lra) is irregularly kept, and the direct object of the latter (eum) is made the subject. [p. 246]
Some verbs of asking and teaching may take two accusatives, one of the Person (direct object), and the other of the Thing (secondary object):
m sententiam rogvit, he asked me my opinion.
tium dvs rogat (Hor. Od. 2.16.1), he prays the gods for rest.
haec praetrem postulbs (Tull. 39), you demanded this of the prtor.
aedls populum rogre (Liv. 6.42), to ask the people [to elect] diles.
docre puers elementa, to teach children their A B C's.
NOTE.This construction is found in classical authors with r, posc, reposc, rog, interrog, flgit, doce.
Some verbs of asking take the ablative of the person with a preposition instead of the accusative. So, always, pet (ab), quaer (ex, ab, d); usually posc (ab), flgit (ab), postul (ab), and occasionally others:
pcem ab Rmns petirunt (B. G. 2.13), they sought peace from the Romans.
quod quaesvit ex m P. Apulius (Phil. 6.1), what Publius Apuleius asked of me.
With the passive of some verbs of asking or teaching, the person or the thing may be used as subject (cf. c. N.2):
Caesar sententiam rogtus est, Csar was asked his opinion.
id ab e flgitbtur (B. C. 1.71), this was urgently demanded of him.
NOTE.The accusative of the thing may be retained with the passive of rog, and of verbs of teaching, and occasionally with a few other verbs:
fuerant hc rogt; (Cael. 64), they had been asked this.
poscor meum Laelapa (Ov. M. 7.771), I am asked for my Llaps.
Cicer cncta doctus (Sall. Cat. 45), Cicero, being informed of everything.
But with most verbs of asking in prose the accusative of the thing becomes the subject nominative, and the accusative of the person is put in the ablative with a preposition: as,n postulantur quidem vrs senectte (Cat. M. 34), strength is not even expected of an old man (asked from old age).
The verb cl, conceal, may take two accusatives, and the usually intransitive late, lie hid, an accusative of the person:
nn t clv sermnem T. Amp; (Fam. 2.16.3), I did not conceal from you the talk of Titus Ampius.
nec lature dol frtrem Innis (Aen. 1.130), nor did the wiles of Juno escape the notice of her brother.
NOTE 1.The accusative of the person with late is late or poetical ( 388. c. N.1).
NOTE 2.All the double constructions indicated in 396 arise from the wavering meaning of the verbs. Thus doce means both to show a thing, and to instruct a person; cl, to keep a person in the dark, and to hide a thing; rog, to question a person, and to ask a question or a thing. Thus either accusative may be regarded as the direct object, and so become the subject of the passive (cf. b above), but for convenience the accusative of the thing is usually called secondary. [p. 247]
Idiomatic Uses
The Accusative has the following special uses:
The accusative is found in a few adverbial phrases (Adverbial Accusative):
id temporis, at that time; id (istuc) aettis, at that age.
id (quod) genus, of that (what) sort (perhaps originally nominative).
meam vicem, on my part.
bonam partem, in a great measure; maximam partem, for the most part.
virle (muliebre) secus, of the male (female) sex (probably originally in apposition).
quod s, but if (as to which, if); quod nisi, if not.
The so-called synecdochical or Greek Accusative, found in poetry and later Latin, is used to denote the part affected:
caput nectentur (Aen. 5.309), their heads shall be bound (they shall be bound about the head).
rdents oculs suffect sanguine et gn; (id. 2.210), their glaring eyes bloodshot and blazing with fire (suffused as to their eyes with blood and fire).
nda gen (id. 1.320), with her knee bare (bare as to the knee).
femur trgul ictus (Liv. 21.7.10), wounded in the thigh by a dart.
NOTE.This construction is also called the Accusative of Specification.
In many apparently similar expressions the accusative may be regarded as the direct object of a verb in the middle voice ( 156. a):
intile ferrum cingitur (Aen. 2.510), he girds on the useless steel.
nod sins collcta fluents (id. 1.320), having her flowing folds gathered in a knot.
umers nsternor pelle lenis (id. 2.722), I cover my shoulders with a lion's skin.
prtinus induitur faciem cultumque Dinae (Ov. M. 2.425), forthwith she assumes the shape and garb of Diana.
The Accusative is used in Exclamations:
fortntam rem pblicam, O fortunate republic! [Cf. fortnta mor<*> (Phil. 14.31), oh, happy death! ( 339. a).]
m nflcem (Mil. 102), oh, unhappy I!
m miserum, ah, wretched me!
n quattuor rs (Ecl. 5.65), lo, four altars!
ellum (=em illum), there he is! [Cf. 146. a. N.2.]
eccs (=ecce es), there they are, look at them!
pr deum fidem, good heavens (O protection of the gods)!
hcine saeclum (Ter. Ad. 304), O this generation!
huncine hominem (Verr. 5.62), this man, good heavens! [p. 248]
NOTE 1.Such expressions usually depend upon some long-forgotten verb. The substantive is commonly accompanied by an adjective. The use of -ne in some cases suggests an original question, as in quid? what? why? tell me.
NOTE 2.The omission of the verb has given rise to some other idiomatic accusatives. Such are:
saltem (sc. dcit) (in addressing a letter), greeting.
m dus fidius (sc. adiuvet), so help me heaven (the god of faith).
unde mih lapidem (Hor. S. 2.7.116), where can I get a stone?
qu mihi fortnam (Hor. Ep. 1.5.12), of what use to me is fortune? [No verb thought of.]
The subject of an infinitive is in the accusative:
intelleg t sapere (Fam. 7.32.3), I perceive that you are wise.
es rs iactr nlbat (B. G. 1.18), he was unwilling that these matters should be discussed.
NOTE.This construction is especially common with verbs of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving ( 580).
The accusative in later writers is sometimes used in apposition with a clause:
dserunt tribnal ... mans intentants, causam discordiae et initium armrum (Tac. Ann. 1.27), they abandon the tribunal shaking their fists, a cause of dissension and the beginning of war.
NOTE.This construction is an extension (under Greek influence) of a usage more nearly within the ordinary rules, such as,Eumenem prdidre Antioch, pcis mercdem (Sall. Ep. Mith. 8), they betrayed Eumenes to Antiochus, the price of peace. [Here Eumenes may be regarded as the price, although the real price is the betrayal.]
For the Accusative of the End of Motion, see 427.2; for the Accusative of Duration of Time and Extent of Space, see 423, 425; for the Accusative with Prepositions, see 220.
ABLATIVE CASE
Under the name Ablative are included the meanings and, in part, the forms of three cases,the Ablative proper, expressing the relation FROM; the Locative, IN; and the Instrumental, WITH or BY. These three cases were originally not wholly distinct in meaning, and their confusion was rendered more certain (1) by the development of meanings that approached each other and (2) by phonetic decay, by means of which these cases have become largely identical in form. Compare, for the first, the phrases parte dexter, ON the right; quam ob causam, FROM which cause; ad fmam, AT (in consequence of) the report; and, for the second, the like forms of the dative and ablative plural, the old dative in - of the fifth declension ( 96), and the loss of the original -d of the ablative ( 49. e; cf. 43. N.1, 92. f, 214. a. N.).
The relation of FROM includes separation, source, cause, agent, and comparison; that of WITH or BY, accompaniment, instrument, means, manner, quality, and price; that of IN or AT, place, time, circumstance. This classification according to the original cases (to which, however, too great a degree of certainty should not be attached)
187 is set forth in the following table: [p. 249]
|
I. Ablative Proper (from) (Separative): |
1. Of Separation, Privation, and Want ( 400). |
|
2. Of Source (participles of origin etc.) ( 403). |
|
3. Of Cause (labr, exsili, etc.) ( 404). |
|
4. Of Agent (with ab after Passives) ( 405). |
|
5. Of Comparison (THAN) ( 406). |
|
II. Instrumental Ablative (with): |
1. Of Manner, Means, and Instrument ( 408 ff.). |
|
2. Of Object of the Deponents tor etc. ( 410). |
|
3. Of Accompaniment (with cum) ( 413). |
|
4. Of Degree of Difference ( 414). |
|
5. Of Quality (with Adjectives) ( 415). |
|
6. Of Price and Exchange ( 416). |
|
7. Of Specification ( 418). |
|
8. Ablative Absolute ( 419). |
|
III. Locative Ablative (in, on, at): |
1. Of Place where (commonly with in) ( 421). |
|
2. Of Time and Circumstance ( 423). |
The Ablative is used to denote the relations expressed in English by the prepositions from; in, at; with, by:
lberre met, to deliver from fear.
excultus doctrn, trained in learning.
hc ips tempore, at this very time.
caecus avriti, blind with avarice.
occsus gladi, slain by the sword.
USES OF THE ABLATIVE PROPER
Ablative of Separation
Words signifying Separation or Privation are followed by the ablative.
Verbs meaning to remove, set free, be absent, deprive, and want, take the Ablative (sometimes with ab or ex):
oculs s prvvit (Fin. 5.87), he deprived himself of eyes.
omn Galli Rmns interdcit (B. G. 1.46), he (Ariovistus) bars the Romans from the whole of Gaul.
e aqu et gn interdcitur (Vell. 2.45), he is debarred the use of fire and water. [The regular formula of banishment.]
volupttibus carre (Cat. M. 7), to lack enjoyments.
nn ege medicn (Lael. 10), I want no physic.
levmur superstitine, lbermur mortis met (Fin. 1.63), we are relieved from superstition, we are freed from fear of death.
solt cupidittibus (Leg. Agr. 1.27), freed from desires.
mults ex hs incommods pecni s lbersse (Verr. 5.23), that many have freed themselves by money from these inconveniences.
For the Genitive with verbs of separation and want, see 356. N. [p. 250]
Verbs compounded with , ab, d, ex, (1) take the simple Ablative when used figuratively; but (2) when used literally to denote actual separation or motion, they usually require a preposition ( 426. 1):
(1) cnt dsistere (B. G. 1.8), to desist from the attempt.
dsine commnibus locs (Acad. 2.80), quit commonplaces.
abre magistrt, to leave one's office.
abstinre iniri, to refrain from wrong.
(2) prposit aberrre (Fin. 5.83), to wander from the point.
d prvinci dcdere (Verr. 2.48), to withdraw from one's province.
ab ire abre (id. 2.114), to go outside of the law.
ex cvitte excessre (B. G. 6.8), they departed from the state. [But cf. fnibus sus excesserant (id. 4.18), they had left their own territory.]
mgn dmissum nmen Il; (Aen. 1.288), a name descended (sent down) from great Iulus.
For the Dative used instead of the Ablative of Separation, see 381. For the Ablative of the actual place whence in idiomatic expressions, see 427. 1, 428. f.
Adjectives denoting freedom and want are followed by the ablative:
urbs nda praesidi (Att. 7.13), the city naked of defence.
immnis mliti (Liv. 1.43), free of military service.
plbs orba tribns (Leg. 3.9), the people deprived of tribunes.
NOTE.A preposition sometimes occurs:
culp vacuus (Sall. Cat. 14), free from blame.
lber dlicis (Leg. Agr. 1.27), free from luxuries.
Messna ab hs rbus vacua atque nda est (Verr. 4.3), Messana is empty and bare of these things.
For the Genitive with adjectives of want, see 349. a.
Ablative of Source and Material
The Ablative (usually with a preposition) is used to denote the Source from which anything is derived, or the Material of which it consists:
1. Source:
Rhnus oritur ex Lepontis (B. G. 4.10), the Rhine rises in (from) the country of the Lepontii.
ab hs serm oritur (Lael. 5), the conversation is begun by (arises from) them.
cius ratinis vim atque tilittem ex ill caelest Epicr volmine accpimus (N. D. 1.43), of this reasoning we have learned the power and advantage from that divine book of Epicurus.
suvittem odrum qu afflrentur flribus (Cat. M. 59), the sweetness of the odors which breathed from the flowers. [p. 251]
2. Material:
erat ttus ex fraude et mendci factus (Clu. 72), he was entirely made up of fraud and falsehood.
valvs mgnificentirs, ex aur atque ebore perfectirs (Verr. 4.124), more splendid doors, more finely wrought of gold and ivory.
factum d cautibus antrum (Ov. M. 1.575), a cave formed of rocks.
templum d marmore pnam (Georg. 3.13), I'll build a temple of marble.
NOTE 1.In poetry the preposition is often omitted.
NOTE 2.The Ablative of Material is a development of the Ablative of Source. For the Genitive of Material, see 344.
Participles denoting birth or origin are followed by the Abla tive of Source, generally without a preposition:
188
Iove ntus et Mi (N. D. 3.56), son of Jupiter and Maia.
dite rgibus (Hor. Od. 1.1.1), descendant of kings.
qu sanguine crtus (Aen. 2.74), born of what blood.
genitae Pandone (Ov. M. 6.666), daughters of Pandion.
NOTE 1.A preposition (ab, d, ex) is usually expressed with pronouns, with the name of the mother, and often with that of other ancestors:
ex m hc ntus nn est sed ex frtre me; (Ter. Ad. 40), this is not my son, but my brother's (not born from me, etc.).
cum ex utrque [uxre] flius ntus esset (De Or. 1.183), each wife having had a son (when a son had been born of each wife).
Blus et omns Bl (Aen. 1.730), Belus and all his descendants.
NOTE 2.Rarely, the place of birth is expressed by the ablative of source: as, dsdervit C. Flegntem Placenti, A. Grnium Puteols (B. C. 3.71), he lost Caius Fleginas of Placentia, Aulus Granius of Puteoli.
NOTE 3.The Roman tribe is regularly expressed by the ablative alone: as, Q. Verrem Rmili (Verr. 1.23), Quintus Verres of the Romilian tribe.
Some verbs may take the Ablative of Material without a preposition. Such are cnstre, cnsistere, and continr.
189 But with cnstre, ex is more common:
doms amoenits nn aedifici sed silv cnstbat (Nep. Att. 13), the charm of the house consisted not in the buildings but in the woods.
ex anim cnstmus et corpore (Fin. 4.19), we consist of soul and body.
vta corpore et sprit contintur (Marc. 28), life consists of body and spirit.
The Ablative of Material without a preposition is used with facere, fier, and similar words, in the sense of do with, become of:
quid hc homine facitis (Verr. 2.1.42), what are you going to do with this man?
quid Tulliol me fet (Fam. 14.4.3), what will become of my dear Tullia ?
quid t futrum est (Verr. 2.155), what will become of you? [p. 252]
The Ablative of Material with ex, and in poetry without a preposition, sometimes depends directly on a noun:
nn pauca pcula ex aur (Verr. 4.62), not a few cups of gold.
scopuls pendentibus antrum (Aen. 1.166), a cave of hanging rocks.
For Ablative of Source instead of Partitive Genitive, see 346. c.
Ablative of Cause
The Ablative (with or without a preposition) is used to express Cause:
190
neglegenti plectimur (Lael. 85), we are chastised for negligence.
guberntris ars tilitte nn arte laudtur (Fin. 1.42), the pilot s skill is praised for its service, not its skill.
certs d causs, for cogent reasons.
ex vulnere aeger (Rep. 2.38), disabled by (from) a wound.
mare sle lucet (Acad. 2.105), the sea gleams in the sun (from the sun).
The Ablative of Cause without a preposition is used with labr (also with ex), exsili, exsult, triumph, lacrim, rde:
dole t alis mals labrre (Fam. 4.3), I am sorry that you suffer with other ills. [Cf. ex aere alin labrre (B. C. 3.22), to labor under debt (from another's money).]
exsultre laetiti, triumphre gaudi coepit (Clu. 14), she began to exult in gladness, and triumph in joy.
exsilu gaudi (Fam. 16.16), I jumped for joy. [Cf. lacrim gaudi (Ter. Ad. 409), I weep for joy.]
rdre dolre et r (Att. 2.19.5), to be on fire with pain and anger.
For gaude and glrior, see 431.
The motive which influences the mind of the person acting is expressed by the ablative of cause; the object exciting the emotion often by ob
191 or propter with the accusative:
nn ob praedam aut spoliand cupdine (Tac. H. 1.63), not for booty or through lust of plunder.
amcitia ex s et propter s expetenda (Fin. 2.83), friendship must be sought of and for itself.
NOTE.But these constructions are often confused: as,prre lgibus propter metum (Par. 34), to obey the laws on account of fear. [Here metum is almost equivalent to the terrors of the law, and hence propter is used, though the ablative would be more natural.] [p. 253]
The ablatives caus and grti, for the sake of, are used with a genitive preceding, or with a pronoun in agreement:
e caus, on account of this; qu grti; (Ter. Eun. 99), for what purpose?
me caus, for my sake; me grti; (Plaut.), for my sake.
ex me et re pblicae caus, for my own sake and the republic's.
praedictinis caus; (N. D. 3.5), by way of prophecy.
exempl grti; (verb grti), for example.
su prgnd grti, for the sake of clearing themselves.
NOTE.But grti with possessives in this use is rare.
Ablative of Agent
The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is expressed by the Ablative with or ab:
laudtur ab hs, culptur ab ills (Hor. S. 1.2.11), he is praised by these, blamed by those.
ab anim tu quidquid agitur id agitur t (Tusc. 1.52), whatever is done by your soul is done by yourself.
flis in idicium voctus est (Cat. M. 22), he was brought to trial by his sons.
cum cnct cnsess plausus esset multiplex datus (id. 64), when great applause had been given by the whole audience.
n virts ab audci vincertur (Sest. 92), that valor might not be overborne by audacity. [Audcia is in a manner personified.]
NOTE 1.This construction is developed from the Ablative of Source. The agent is conceived as the source or author of the action.
NOTE 2.The ablative of the agent (which requires or ab) must be carefully distinguished from the ablative of instrument, which has no preposition ( 409). Thus occsus gladi, slain by a sword; but, occsus ab hoste, slain by an enemy.
NOTE 3.The ablative of the agent is commonest with nouns denoting persons, but it occurs also with names of things or qualities when these are conceived as performing an action and so are partly or wholly personified, as in the last example under the rule.
The ablative of the agent with ab is sometimes used after intransitive verbs that have a passive sense:
perre ab hoste, to be slain by an enemy.
The personal agent, when considered as instrument or means, is often expressed by per with the accusative, or by oper with a genitive or possessive:
ab explrtribus certior factus est (B. G. 1.21), he was informed by scouts (in person). But,
per explrtrs Caesar certior factus est (id. 1.12), Csar was informed by (means of) scouts.
lautae oper Neptn (Plaut. Rud. 699), washed clean by the services of Neptune.
nn me oper vnit (Ter. Hec. 228), it hasn't happened through me (by my exertions). [Cf. ius oper, B. G. 5.27.] [p. 254]
NOTE 1.The ablative of means or instrument is often used instead of the ablative of agent, especially in military phrases: as,haec excubitribus tenbantur (B. G. 7.69), these (redoubts) were held by means of sentinels.
NOTE 2.An animal is sometimes regarded as the means or instrument, sometimes as the agent. Hence both the simple ablative and the ablative with ab occur:
equ veh, to ride on horseback (be conveyed by means of a horse). [Not ab equ.]
clipes mribus esse drss (Div. 1.99), that the shields were gnawed by mice.
For the Dative of the Agent with the Gerundive, see 374.
Ablative of Comparison
The Comparative degree is often followed by the Ablative
192 signifying than:
Cat est Cicerne loquentior, Cato is more eloquent than Cicero.
quid nbs dubus labrisius est (Mil. 5), what more burdened with toil than we two?
vlius argentum est aur, virttibus aurum (Hor. Ep. 1.1.52), silver is less precious than gold, gold than virtue.
The idiomatic ablatives opnine, sp, solit, dict, aequ, crdibil, and ist are used after comparatives instead of a clause:
celerius opnine (Fam. 14.23), faster than one would think.
srius sp omnium (Liv. 26.26), later than all hoped (than the hope of all).
amnis solit cittior (id. 23.19.11), a stream swifter than its wont.
gravius aequ (Sall. Cat. 51), more seriously than was right.
The comparative may be followed by quam, than. When quam is used, the two things compared are put in the same case<*>
nn callidior es quam hc (Rosc. Am. 49), you are not more cunning than he.
cntinibus accommodtior est quam idicis (Clu. 2), fitter for popular assemblies than for courts.
misericordi dgnior quam contumli (Pison. 32), more worthy of pity than of disgrace.
The construction with quam is required when the first of the things compared is not in the Nominative or Accusative.
NOTE 1.There are several limitations on the use of the ablative of comparison even when the first of the things compared is in the nominative or accusative. Thus the quam construction is regularly used (1) when the comparative is in agreement with a genitive, dative, or ablative: as,senex est e melire condicine quam adulscns (Cat. M. 68), an old man is in this respect in a better position than a young man; and (2) when the second member of the comparison is modified by a clause: as,minor fuit aliquant is qu prmus fbulam dedit quam e qu, etc. (Brut. 73), he who first presented a play was somewhat younger than those who, etc. [p. 255]
NOTE 2.The poets sometimes use the ablative of comparison where the prose construction requires quam: as,pne ege iam mellts potire placents (Hor. Ep. 1.10.11), I now want bread better than honey-cakes.
NOTE 3.Relative pronouns having a definite antecedent never take quam in this construction, but always the ablative: as,rx erat Aens nbs, qu istior alter nec, etc. (Aen. 1.544), neas was our king, than whom no other [was] more righteous.
In sentences expressing or implying a general negative the ablative (rather than quam) is the regular construction when the first member of the comparison is in the nominative or accusative:
nihil dtestbilius ddecore, nihil foedius servitte (Phil. 3.36), nothing is more dreadful than disgrace, nothing viler than slavery.
nminem esse crirem t (Att. x. 8A. 1), that no one is dearer than you.
After the comparatives pls, minus, amplius, longius, without quam, a word of measure or number is often used with no change in its case:
pls septingent capt; (Liv. 41.12), more than seven hundred were taken. [Nominative.]
pls terti parte interfect; (B. G. 3.6), more than a third part being slain. [Ablative Absolute.]
aditus in ltitdinem nn amplius ducentrum pedum relinqubtur (id. 2.29), an approach of not more than two hundred feet in width was left. [Genitive of Measure: 345. b.]
NOTE.The noun takes the case required by the context, without reference to the comparative, which is in a sort of apposition: seven hundred were taken [and] more.
Alius is sometimes followed by the ablative in poetic and colloquial use; in formal prose it is followed by ac (atque), et, more rarely by nisi, quam:
nec quicquam aliud lbertte commn; (Fam. 11.2), nothing else than the common liberty.
alius Lsipp (Hor. Ep. 2.1.240), another than Lysippus.
num aliud vidtur esse ac merum bonrum drepti; (Dom. 51), does it seem anything different from the plundering of my property?
erat historia nihil aliud nisi annlium cnfecti; (De O<*>. 2.52), history was nothing else but a compiling of records.
The comparative of an adverb is usually followed by quam, rarely by the ablative except in poetry:
tempus t citius quam rti dficeret (Rosc. Am. 89), time would fail you sooner than words. But,
cur olvum sanguine vpern cautius vtat (Hor. Od. 1.8.9), why does he shun oil more carefully than viper's blood?
NOTE.Prepositions meaning before or beyond (as ante, prae, praeter, supr) are sometimes used with a comparative: as,scelere ante alis immnior omns (Aen. 1.347), more monstrous in crime than all other men. [p. 256]
USES OF THE ABLATIVE AS INSTRUMENTAL
Means, Instrument, Manner, and Accompaniment are denoted by the Instrumental Ablative (see 398), but some of these uses more commonly require a preposition. As they all come from one source (the old Instrumental Case) no sharp line can be drawn between them, and indeed the Romans themselves can hardly have thought of any distinction. Thus, in omnibus precibus rbant, they entreated with every [kind of] prayer, the ablative, properly that of means, cannot be distinguished from that of manner.
Ablative of Means or Instrument
The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument of an action:
certants pgns, calcibus, unguibus, mors dnique (Tusc. 5.77), fighting with fists, heels, nails, and even teeth.
cum pgns et calcibus concsus esset (Verr. 3.56), when he had been pummelled with their fists and heels.
mes labribus interit rem pblicam lberv; (Sull. 33), by my toils I have saved the state from ruin.
multae istrum arborum me man sunt satae (Cat. M. 59), many of those trees were set out with my own hands.
v victa vs, vel potius oppressa virtte audcia est (Mil. 30), violence was overcome by violence, or rather, boldness was put down by courage.
The Ablative of Means is used with verbs and adjectives of filling, abounding, and the like:
Deus bons omnibus explvit mundum (Tim. 3), God has filled the world with all good things.
aggere et crtibus fosss explent (B. G. 7.86), they fill up the ditches with earth and fascines.
ttum montem hominibus complvit (id. 1.24), he filled the whole mountain with men.
opmus praed (Verr. 2.1.132), rich with spoils.
vta plna et cnferta volupttibus (Sest.23), life filled and crowded with delights.
Forum App differtum nauts (Hor. S. 1.5.4), Forum Appii crammed with bargemen.
NOTE.In poetry the Genitive is often used with these words. Comple and imple sometimes take the genitive in prose (cf. 356); so regularly plnus and (with personal nouns) compltus and refertus ( 349. a):
omnia plna lcts et maerris furunt (Sest. 128), everything was full of grief and mourning.
llam dnrirum implre (Fam. 9.18), to fill a pot with money. [Here evidently colloquial, otherwise rare in Cicero.]
convvium vcnrum comple; (Cat. M. 46, in the mouth of Cato), I fill up the banquet with my neighbors.
cum compltus merctrum carcer esset (Verr. 5.147), when the prison was full of traders. [p. 257]
The deponents tor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, with several of their compounds,
193 govern the Ablative:
tar vestr bengnitte (Arch. 18), I will avail myself of your kindness.
ita mihi salv r pblic vbscum perfru liceat (Cat. 4.11), so may I enjoy with you the state secure and prosperous.
fung inn mnere (Aen. 6.885), to perform an idle service.
aur hrs potitur (Ov. M. 7.156), the hero takes the gold.
lacte et fern carne vescbantur (Iug. 89), they fed on milk and game.
NOTE.This is properly an Ablative of Means (instrumental) and the verbs are really in the middle voice ( 156. a). Thus tor with the ablative signifies I employ myself (or avail myself) by means of, etc. But these earlier meanings disappeared from the language, leaving the construction as we find it.
Potior sometimes takes the Genitive, as always in the phrase potri rrum, to get control or be master of affairs ( 357. a):
ttus Galliae ss potr posse sprant (B. G. 1.3), they hope they can get possession of the whole of Gaul.
NOTE 1.In early Latin, these verbs are sometimes transitive and take the accusative:
fnctus est officium (Ter. Ph. 281), he performed the part, etc.
ille patria potitur commoda (Ter. Ad. 871), he enjoys his ancestral estate.
NOTE 2.The Gerundive of these verbs is used personally in the passive as if the verb were transitive (but cf. 500. 3): as,Hracli omnia tenda ac possidenda trdiderat (Verr. 2.46), he had given over everything to Heraclius for his use and possession (to be used and possessed).
Opus and sus, signifying need, take the Ablative:
194
magistrtibus opus est (Leg. 3.5), there is need of magistrates.
nunc vribus sus (Aen. 8.441), now there is need of strength.
NOTE.The ablative with sus is not common in classic prose.
With opus the ablative of a perfect participle is often found, either agreeing with a noun or used as a neuter abstract noun:
opus est tu exprmpt maliti atque astti; (Ter. And. 723), I must have your best cunning and cleverness set to work.
propert opus erat (cf. Mil. 49), there was need of haste.
NOTE 1.So rarely with sus in comedy: as,quid ists sust cnscrpts (Pl. Bacch. 749), what's the good of having them in writing?
NOTE 2.The omission of the noun gives rise to complex constructions: as,quid opus factst (cf. B. G. 1.42), what must be done? [Cf. quid opus est fier? with qu fact opus est?] [p. 258]
Opus is often found in the predicate, with the thing needed in the nominative as subject:
dux nbs et auctor opus est (Fam. 2.6.4), we need a chief and responsible adviser (a chief, etc., is necessary for us).
s quid ips opus esset (B. G. 1.34), if he himself wanted anything (if anything should be necessary for him).
quae opus sunt (Cato R. R. 14.3), things which are required.
Ablative of Manner
The Manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative; usually with cum, unless a limiting adjective is used with the noun:
cum celeritte vnit, he came with speed. But,
summ celeritte vnit, he came with the greatest speed.
quid rfert qu m ratine cgtis (Lael. 26), what difference does it make in what way you compel me?
But cum is often used even when the ablative has a limiting adjective:
quant id cum percul fcerit (B. G. 1.17), at what risk he did this.
nn minre cum taedi recubant (Plin. Ep. 9.17.3), they recline with no less weariness.
With such words of manner as mod, pact, ratine, rt, v, vi, and with stock expressions which have become virtually adverbs (as silenti, ire, iniri), cum is not used:
apis Matnae mre modque carmina fing; (Hor. Od. 4.2.28), in the style and manner of a Matinian bee I fashion songs.
NOTE.So in poetry the ablative of manner often omits cum: as,nsequitur cumul aquae mns (Aen. 1.105), a mountain of water follows in a mass. [Cf. murmure (id. 1.124); rms (id. 1.123).]
Ablative of Accompaniment
Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with cum:
cum coniugibus ac lbers (Att. 8.2.3), with wives and children.
cum funditribus sagittrisque flmen trnsgress; (B. G. 2.19), having crossed the river with the archers and slingers.
quae supplicti s cum cters cnfertur (Cat. 3.15), if this thanksgiving be compared with others.
quae [lx] esse cum tl vetat (Mil. 11), the law which forbids [one] to go armed (be with a weapon).
s scum sus dxerit (Cat. 1.30), if he leads out with him his associates. [For scum, see 144. b. N.1.] [p. 259]
The ablative is used without cum in some military phrases, and here and there by early writers:
subsequbtur omnibus cpis (B. G. 2.19), he followed close with all his forces. [But also cum omnibus cpis, id. 1.26.]
hc praesidi profectus est (Verr. 2.1.86), with this force he set out.
NOTE.Misce and iung, with some of their compounds, and cnfund take either (1) the Ablative of Accompaniment with or without cum, or (2) sometimes the Dative (mostly poetical or late):
mixta dolre volupts (B. Al. 56), pleasure mingled with pain.
cius animum cum su misceat (Lael. 81), whose soul he may mingle with his own.
fltumque crur miscuit (Ov. M. 4.140), and mingled tears with blood.
Caesar es cohorts cum exercit su coninxit (B. C. 1.18), Csar united those cohorts with his own army.
r coninctus terrs (Lucr. 5.562), air united with earth.
hmn capit cervcem equnam iungere (Hor. A. P. 1), to join to a human head a horse's neck.
Words of Contention and the like require cum:
arms cum hoste certre (Off. 3.87), to fight with the enemy in arms.
libenter haec cum Q. Catul disputrem (Manil. 66), I should gladly discuss these matters with Quintus Catulus.
NOTE.But words of contention may take the Dative in poetry (see 368. a).
Ablative of Degree of Difference
With Comparatives and words implying comparison the ablative is used to denote the Degree of Difference:
qunque mlibus passuum distat, it is five miles distant.
mlibus passuum circiter dubus (B. G. 5.32), at a distance of about two miles. [For as an adverb, see 433. 3.]
aliquot ante anns (Tusc. 1.4), several years before.
aliquant post suspexit (Rep. 6.9), a while after, he looked up.
mult m vigilre crius (Cat. 1.8), that I watch much more sharply.
nihil erat ipse Cyclps quam aris prdentior (Tusc. 5.115), the Cyclops himself was not a whit wiser than the ram.
The ablatives qu ... e (hc), and quant ... tant, are used correlatively with comparatives, like the English the ... the
195 :
qu minus cupidittis, e pls auctrittis (Liv. 24.28), the less greed, the more weight (by what the less, by that the more).
quant erat gravior oppgnti, tant crbrirs litterae mittbantur (B. G. 5.45), the severer the siege was, the more frequently letters were sent. [p. 260]
NOTE.To this construction are doubtless to be referred all cases of qu and e (hc) with a comparative, even when they have ceased to be distinctly felt as degree of difference and approach the Ablative of Cause:
eque m minus paenitet (N. D. 1.8), and for that reason I regret less, etc. (by so much the less I regret).
haec e facilius facibant, quod (B. G. 3.12), this they did the more easily for this reason, because, etc. [Cf. hc mire sp, quod (id. 3.9).]
The Ablative of Comparison ( 406) and the Ablative of Degree of Difference are sometimes used together with the same adjective:
paul minus ducents (B. C. 3.28), a little less than two hundred.
patria, quae mihi vt me mult est crior (Cat. 1.27), my country, which is much dearer to me than life.
But the construction with quam is more common.
Ablative of Quality
The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with an adjective or genitive modifier.
This is called the Descriptive Ablative or Ablative of Quality:
196
anim melire sunt gladitrs (Cat. 2.26), the gladiators are of a better mind.
quae cum esset cvits aequissim ire ac foedere (Arch. 6), as this was a city with perfectly equal constitutional rights.
mulierem eximi pulchritdine (Verr. 2.1.64), a woman of rare beauty.
Aristotels, vir summ ingeni, scienti, cpi (Tusc. 1.7), Aristotle, a man of the greatest genius, learning, and gift of expression.
d Domiti dxit versum Graecum edem sententi (Deiot. 25), concerning Domitius he recited a Greek line of the same tenor.
NOTE.The Ablative of Quality (like the Genitive of Quality, 345) modifies a substantive by describing it. It is therefore equivalent to an adjective, and may be either attributive or predicate. In this it differs from other ablatives, which are equivalent to adverbs.
In expressions of quality the Genitive or the Ablative may often be used indifferently; but physical qualities are oftener denoted by the Ablative (cf. 345. N.):
capill sunt prmiss (B. G. 5.14), they have long hair.
ut capite opert sit (Cat. M. 34), to have his head covered (to be with covered head).
quam fuit inbcillus P. fricn flius, quam tenu aut nll potius valtdine (id. 35), how weak was the son of Africanus, of what feeble health, or rather none at all! [p. 261]
Ablative of Price
The price of a thing is put in the Ablative:
agrum vndidit sstertium sex mlibus, he sold the land for 6000 sesterces.
Antnius rgna addxit pecni (Phil. 7.15), Antony sold thrones for money.
logs rdiculs: quis cn poscit (Pl. Stich. 221), jokes: who wants them for (at the price of) a dinner?
mgn ill ea cnctti stetit (Liv. 2.36), that hesitation cost him dear.
NOTE.To this head is to be referred the Ablative of the Penalty ( 353. 1).
Certain adjectives of quantity are used in the Genitive to denote indefinite value. Such are mgn, parv, tant, quant, plris, minris:
me mgn interest, it is of great consequence to me.
illud parv rfert (Manil. 18), this is of small account.
est mihi tant (Cat. 2.15), it is worth the price (it is of so much).
Verrsne tibi tant fuit (Verr. 2.1.77), was Verres of so much account to you?
tantne minris decumae vnirunt (id. 3.106), were the tithes sold for so much less?
ut t redims captum quam ques minim: s neques paulul, at quant ques (Ter. Eun. 74), to ransom yourself, when captured, at the cheapest rate you can; if you can't for a small sum, then at any rate for what you can.
NOTE.These are really Genitives of Quality ( 345. b).
The genitive of certain colorless nouns is used to denote indefinite value. Such are nihil (nl), nothing; assis, a farthing (rare); flocc (a lock of wool), a straw:
nn flocc faci; (Att. 13.50), I care not a straw. [Colloquial.]
utinam ego istuc abs t factum nl penderem (Ter. Eun. 94), O that I cared nothing for this being done by you! [Colloquial.]
With verbs of exchanging, either the thing taken or the thing given in exchange may be in the Ablative of Price. Such are mt, commt, permt, vert:
fidem suam et religinem pecni commtre (Clu. 129), to barter his faith and conscience for money.
exsilium patri sde mtvit (Q. C. 3.7.11), he exchanged his native land for exile (he took exile in exchange for his native land).
vlx saepe Lucrtilem mtat Lycae Faunus (Hor. Od. 1.17.1), nimble Faunus often changes Lycus for Lucretilis. [He takes Lucretilis at the price of Lycus, i.e. he goes from Lycus to Lucretilis.]
vertere fneribus triumphs (id. 1.35.4), to change the triumph to the funeral train (exchange triumphs for funerals). [Poetical.] [p. 262]
NOTE.With verbs of exchanging cum is often used, perhaps with a different conception of the action: as,aris ... cum croce mtbit vellera lt (Ecl. 4.44), the ram shall change his fleece for [one dyed with] the yellow saffron.
With verbs of buying and selling the simple Ablative of Price must be used, except in the case of tant, quant, plris, minris:
quant eam mit? vl ... quot mins? quadrgint mins (Pl. Epid. 51), what did he buy her for? Cheap. For how many min? Forty.
Ablative of Specification
The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to which anything is or is done:
virtte praecdunt (B. G. 1.1), they excel in courage.
claudus alter pede (Nep. Ages. 8), lame of one foot.
lingu haesitants, vce abson; (De Or. 1.115), hesitating in speech, harsh in voice.
sunt enim homins nn r sed nmine (Off. 1.105), for they are men not in fact, but in name.
mior nt, older; minor nt, younger (cf. 131. c).
paulum aette prgress; (Cat. M. 33), somewhat advanced in age.
corpore senex esse poterit, anim numquam erit (id. 38), he may be an old man in body, he never will be [old] at heart.
To this head are to be referred many expressions where the ablative expresses that in accordance with which anything is or is done:
me ire, with perfect right; but, me mod, in my fashion.
me sententi, in my opinion; but also more formally, ex me sententi. [Here the sense is the same, but the first ablative is specification, the second source.]
propinquitte conincts atque ntr (Lael. 50), closely allied by kindred and nature. [Here the ablative is not different in sense from those above, but no doubt is a development of means.]
qu vincit vribus (id. 55), who surpasses in strength. [Here it is impossible to tell whether vribus is the means of the superiority or that in respect to which one is superior.]
NOTE.As the Romans had no such categories as we make, it is impossible to classify all uses of the ablative. The ablative of specification (originally instrumental) is closely akin to that of manner, and shows some resemblance to means and cause.
For the Supine in - as an Ablative of Specification, see 510.
The adjectives dgnus and indgnus take the ablative:
vir patre, av, miribus sus dgnissimus (Phil. 3.25), a man most worthy of his father, grandfather, and ancestors.
t omn honre indgnissimum idicvit (Vat. 39), he judged you entirely unworthy of every honor. [p. 263]
NOTE 1.So the verb dgnor in poetry and later prose: as,haud equidem tl m dgnor honre (Aen. 1.335), I do not deem myself worthy of such an honor.
NOTE 2.Dgnus and indgnus sometimes take the genitive in colloquial usage and in poetry:
cram dgnissimam tuae virttis (Balbus inAtt. 8.15), care most worthy of your noble character.
dgnus saltis (Plaut. Trin. 1153), worthy of safety.
mgnrum haud umquam indgnus avrum (Aen. 12.649), never unworthy of my great ancestors.
Ablative Absolute
A noun or pronoun, with a participle in agreement, may be put in the Ablative to define the time or circumstances of an action. This construction is called the Ablative Absolute:
197
Caesar, accepts litters, nntium mittit (B. G. 5.46), having received the letter, Csar sends a messenger (the letter having been received).
quibus rbus cgnits Caesar apud mlits cntintur (B. C. 1.7), having learned this, Csar makes a speech to the soldiers.
fugt omn equitt (B. G. 7.68), all the cavalry being put to flight.
interfect Indtiomr (id. 6.2), upon the death of Indutiomarus.
nndum hieme cnfect in fns Nervirum contendit (id. 6.3), though the winter was not yet over, he hastened into the territory of the Nervii.
compress [sunt] cnts nll tumult pblic concitt (Cat. 1.11), the attempts were put down without exciting any general alarm.
n vbs quidem omnibus r etiam tum probt (id. 2.4), since at that time the facts were not yet proved even to all of you.
NOTE.The ablative absolute is an adverbial modifier of the predicate. It is, however, not grammatically dependent on any word in the sentence: hence its name absolute (absoltus, i.e. free or unconnected). A substantive in the ablative absolute very seldom denotes a person or thing elsewhere mentioned in the same clause.
An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the participle in the Ablative Absolute construction:
198
exigu parte aesttis reliqu (B. G. 4.20), when but a small part of the summer was left (a small part of the summer remaining).
L. Domiti Ap. Claudi cnsulibus (id. 5.1), in the consulship of Lucius Domitius and Appius Claudius (Lucius Domitius and Appius Claudius [being] consuls). [The regular way of expressing a date, see 424. g.]
nl dsprandum Teucr duce et auspice Teucr (Hor. Od. 1.7.27), there should be no despair under Teucer's leadership and auspices (Teucer being leader, etc.). [p. 264]
A phrase or clause, used substantively, sometimes occurs as ablative absolute with a participle or an adjective:
incert quid peterent (Liv. 28.36), as it was uncertain what they should aim at (it being uncertain, etc.).
compert vnum esse formdinem (Tac. Ann. 1.66), when it was found that the alarm was groundless.
cr praeteretur dmnstrt (Inv. 2.34), when the reason for omitting it has been explained (why it is passed by being explained).
NOTE.This construction is very rare except in later Latin.
A participle or an adjective is sometimes used adverbially in the ablative absolute without a substantive:
cnsult (Off. 1.27), on purpose (the matter having been deliberated on).
mihi optt vneris (Att. 13.28.3), you will come in accordance with my wish.
sern (Liv. 31.12), under a clear sky (it [being] clear).
nec auspict nec ltt (id. 5.38), with no auspices or favorable sacrifice.
tranquill, ut iunt, qulibet guberntor est (Sen. Ep. 85.34), in good weather, as they say, any man's a pilot.
The Ablative Absolute often takes the place of a Sub ordinate Clause.
Thus it may replace
1. A Temporal Clause ( 541 ff.):
patre interfect, [his] father having been killed. [This corresponds to cum pater interfectus esset, when his father had been killed.]
recentibus sceleris ius vestgis (Q. C. 7.1.1), while the traces of the crime were fresh. [Cf. dum recentia sunt vestgia.]
2. A Causal Clause ( 540):
at e qu Alesiae obsidbantur praeterit di qu auxilia surum exspectverant, cnsmpt omn frment, concili coct cnsultbant (B. G. 7.77), but those who were under siege at Alesia, since the time, etc., had expired, and their grain had been exhausted, calling a council (see 5 below), consulted together. [Cf. cum dis praetersset, etc.]
Drus, dsprt pce, ad reparands vrs intendit animum (Q. C. 4.6.1), Darius, since he despaired of peace, devoted his energies to recruiting his forces. [Cf. cum pcem dsprret.]
3. A Concessive Clause ( 527):
at e repgnante fbat (cnsul), immo vr e fbat magis (Mil. 34), but though he (Clodius) opposed, he (Milo) was likely to be elected consul; nay, rather, etc.
turribus excitts, tamen hs altitd puppium ex barbars nvibus superbat (B. G. 3.14), although towers had been built up, still the high sterns of the enemy's ships rose above them. [p. 265]
4. A Conditional Clause ( 521):
occurrbat e, mancam et dbilem praetram futram suam, cnsule Milne (Mil. 25), it occurred to him that his prtorship would be maimed and feeble, if Milo were consul. [s Mil cnsul esset.]
qu (regine) subct licbit dcurrere in illud mare (Q. C. 9.3.13), if this region is subdued, we shall be free to run down into that sea.
qu quidem dtrct (Arch. 28), if this be taken away.
5. A Clause of Accompanying Circumstance:
ego haec Chrsogon me sponte, remt Sex. Rsci, quaer; (Rosc. Am. 130), of my own accord, without reference to Sextus Roscius (Sextus Roscius being put aside), I ask these questions of Chrysogonus.
nec imperante nec sciente nec praesente domin (Mil. 29), without their master's giving orders, or knowing it, or being present.
NOTE.As the English Nominative Absolute is far less common than the Ablative Absolute in Latin, a change of form is generally required in translation. Thus the present participle is oftenest to be rendered in English by a relative clause with when or while; and the perfect passive participle by the perfect active participle. These changes may be seen in the following example:
At ill, intermiss spati, imprdentibus nostrs atque occupts in mntine castrrum, subit s ex silvs icrunt; impetque in es fact qu erant in statine pr castrs conloct, criter pgnvrunt; dubusque misss subsidi cohortibus Caesare, cum hae (perexigu intermiss loc spati inter s) cnstitissent, nov genere pgnae perterrits nostrs, per medis audcissim perrprunt sque inde incolums recprunt. CAESAR, B. G. 5.15.
But they, having paused a space, while our men were unaware and busied in fortifying the camp, suddenly threw themselves out of the woods; then, making an attack upon those who were on guard in front of the camp, they fought fiercely; and, though two cohorts had been sent by Csar as reinforcements, after these had taken their position (leaving very little space of ground between them), as our men were alarmed by the strange kind of fighting, they dashed most daringly through the midst of them and got off safe.
For the Ablative with Prepositions, see 220.
THE ABLATIVE AS LOCATIVE
Ablative of Place
The Locative Case was originally used (literally) to denote the place where and (figuratively) to denote the time when (a development from the idea of place). But this case was preserved only in names of towns and a few other words, and the place where is usually denoted by the Ablative. In this construction the Ablative was no doubt, used at first without a preposition, but afterwards it became associated in most instances with the preposition in.
In expressions of Time and Place the Latin shows a variety of idiomatic constructions (Ablative, Accusative, and Locative), which are systematically treated in 423 ff. [p. 266]
TIME AND PLACE
Time
Time when, or within which, is expressed by the Ablative; time how long by the Accusative.
1. Ablative:
cnstitt di, on the appointed day; prm lce, at daybreak.
quot hr, at what o'clock? terti vigili, in the third watch.
tribus proxims anns (Iug. 11), within the last three years.
dibus vgint qunque aggerem exstrxrunt (B. G. 7.24), within twentyfive days they finished building a mound.
2. Accusative:
dis continus trgint, for thirty days together.
cum trduum iter fcisset (B. G. 2.16), when he had marched three days.
NOTE.The Ablative of Time is locative in its origin ( 421); the Accusative is the same as that of the extent of space ( 425).
Special constructions of time are the following:
The Ablative of time within which sometimes takes in, and the Accusative of time how long per, for greater precision:
in dibus proxims decem (Iug. 28), within the next ten days.
ld per decem dis (Cat. 3.20), games for ten days.
Duration of time is occasionally expressed by the Ablative:
milits qunque hrs proelium sustinuerant (B. C. 1.47), the men had sustained the fight five hours.
NOTE.In this use the period of time is regarded as that within which the act is done, and it is only implied that the act lasted through the period. Cf. inter anns quattuordecim (B. G. 1.36), for fourteen years.
Time during which or within which may be expressed by the Accusative or Ablative of a noun in the singular, with an ordinal numeral:
qunt di, within [just] four days (lit. on the fifth day). [The Romans counted both ends, see 631. d.]
rgnat iam sextum annum, he has reigned going on six years.
Many expressions have in Latin the construction of time when where in English the main idea is rather of place:
pgn Cannns; (or, apud Canns), in the fight at Cann
lds Rmns, at the Roman games.
omnibus Gallics bells, in all the Gallic wars. [p. 267]
In many idiomatic expressions of time, the Accusative with ad, in, or sub is used. Such are the following:
supplicti dcrta est in Kalends Inuris, a thanksgiving was voted for the first of January.
convnrunt ad diem, they assembled on the [appointed] day.
ad vesperum, till evening; sub vesperum, towards evening.
sub idem tempus, about the same time; sub noctem, at nightfall.
Distance of time before or after anything is variously expressed:
post (ante) trs anns, post tertium annum, trs post anns, tertium post annum, tribus post anns, terti post ann ( 414), three years after.
tribus anns (terti ann) post exsilium (postquam iectus est), three years after his exile.
hs tribus proxims anns, within the last three years.
paucs anns, a few years hence.
abhinc anns trs (tribus anns), ante hs trs anns, three years ago.
triennium est cum (trs ann sunt cum), it is three years since.
octv mnse quam, the eighth month after (see 434. N.).
In Dates the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal, or the ordinal alone, is followed by an accusative, like a preposition; and the phrase itself may also be governed by a preposition.
The year is expressed by the names of the consuls in the ablative absolute, usually without a conjunction ( 419. a):
is dis erat a. d. v. Kal. Apr. (quntum Kalends Aprls) L. Psne A. Gabni cnsulibus (B. G. 1.6), that day was the 5th before the calends of April (March 28), in the consulship of Piso and Gabinius.
in a. d. v. Kal. Nov. (Cat. 1.7), to the 5th day before the calends of November (Oct. 28).
xv. Kal. Sextls, the 15th day before the calends of August (July 18). [Full form: qunt decim di ante Kalends.]
For the Roman Calendar, see 631.
Extent of Space
Extent of Space is expressed by the Accusative:
fosss qundecim peds lts (B. G. 7.72), trenches fifteen feet broad.
prgressus mlia passuum circiter duodecim (id. 5.9), having advanced about twelve miles.
in omn vt su quemque rct cnscienti trnsversum unguem nn oportet discdere (quoted inAtt. 13.20), in all one's life, one should not depart a nail's breadth from straightforward conscience.
NOTE.This Accusative denotes the object through or over which the action takes place and is kindred with the Accusative of the End of Motion ( 427. 2). [p. 268]
Measure is often expressed by the Genitive of Quality ( 345. b):
vllum duodecim pedum (B. G. 7.72), a rampart of twelve feet (in height).
Distance when considered as extent of space is put in the Accusative; when considered as degree of difference, in the Ablative ( 414):
mlia passuum tria ab erum castrs castra pnit (B. G. 1.22), he pitches his camp three miles from their camp.
qunque dirum iter abest (Liv. 30.29), it is distant five days' march.
trgint mlibus passuum nfr eum locum (B. G. 6.35), thirty miles below that place (below by thirty miles).
Relations of Place
Relations of Place
199 are expressed as follows:
1. The place from which, by the Ablative with ab, d, or ex.
2. The place to which (or end of motion), by the Accusative with <*>d or in.
3. The place where, by the Ablative with in (Locative Ablative).
Examples are:
1. Place from which:
septentrine, from the north.
cum vbs discesser; (Cat. M. 79), when I leave you.
d prvinci dcdere, to come away from one's province.
d monte, down from the mountain.
negtitor ex fric (Verr. 2.1.14), a merchant from Africa.
ex Britanni obsids msrunt (B. G. 4.38), they sent hostages from Britain.
Msa prfluit ex monte Voseg; (id. 4.10), the Meuse (flows from) rises in the Vosges mountains.
2. Place to which (end of motion):
nocte ad Nervis pervnrunt (B. G. 2.17), they came by night to the Nervii.
adbam ad istum fundum (Caec. 82), I was going to that estate.
in fricam nvigvit, he sailed to Africa; in taliam profectus, gone to Italy.
lgtum in Trevers mittit (B. G. 3.11), he sends his lieutenant into the [country of the] Treveri. [p. 269]
3. Place where:
in hc urbe vtam dgit, he passed his life in this city.
s in Galli remanrent (B. G. 4.8), if they remained in Gaul.
dum haec in Venets geruntur (id. 3.17), while this was going on among the Veneti.
oppidum in nsul positum (id. 7.58), a town situated on an island.
With names of towns and small islands, and with domus and rs, the Relations of Place are expressed as follows:
1. The place from which, by the Ablative without a preposition.
2. The place to which, by the Accusative without a preposition.
3. The place where, by the Locative.
200
Examples are:
1. Place from which:
Rm profectus, having set out from Rome; Rm abesse, to be absent from Rome.
dom abre, to leave home; rre reversus, having returned from the country.
2. Place to which:
cum Rmam sext di Mutin vnisset (Fam. 11.6.1), when he had come to Rome from Modena in five days (on the sixth day).
Dl Rhodum nvigre, to sail from Delos to Rhodes.
rs b, I shall go into the country.
domum iit, he went home.
201 [So, sus doms abre, to go to their homes.]
3. Place where (or at which):
|
Rmae, at Rome (Rma). |
Athns, at Athens (Athnae). |
|
Rhod, at Rhodes (Rhodus). |
Lnuv, at Lanuvium.
|
|
Sam, at Samos.
|
Cypr, at Cyprus.
|
|
Tbur or Tbure, at Tibur.
|
Cribus, at Cures.
|
|
Philipps, at Philippi.
|
Capres, at Capri (Capreae). |
|
dom (rarely domu), at home.
|
rr, in the country.
|
The Locative Case is also preserved in the following nouns, which are used (like names of towns) without a preposition:
bell, mlitiae (in contrast to dom), abroad, in military service.
|
hum, on the ground.
|
vesper (-e), in the evening.
|
|
fors, out of doors.
|
anim (see 358). |
|
her (-e), yesterday.
|
temper, betimes.
|
Cf. nflc arbor; (Liv. 1.26), on the ill-omened (barren) tree; terr marque, by land and sea. [p. 270]
Special uses of place from which, to which, and where are the following:
With names of towns and small islands ab is often used to denote from the vicinity of, and ad to denote towards, to the neighborhood of:
ut Mutin discderet (Phil. 14.4), that he should retire from Modena (which he was besieging).
erat Gergovi dspectus in castra (B. G. 7.45), there was from about Gergovia a view into the camp.
ad Alesiam proficscuntur (id. 7.76), they set out for Alesia.
ad Alesiam perveniunt (id. 7.79), they arrive at Alesia (i.e. in the neighborhood of the town).
D. Laelius cum classe ad Brundisium vnit (B. C. 3.100), Decimus Llius came to Brundisium with a fleet (arriving in the harbor).
The general words urbs, oppidum, nsula require a preposition to express the place from which, to which, or where:
With the name of a country, ad denotes to the borders; in with the accusative, into the country itself. Similarly ab denotes away from the outside; ex, out of the interior.
Thus ad taliam pervnit would mean he came to the frontier, regardless of the destination; in taliam, he went to Italy, i.e. to a place within it, to Rome, for instance.
So ab tali profectus est would mean he came away from the frontier, regardless of the original starting-point; ex tali, he came from Italy, from within, as from Rome, for instance.
With all names of places at, meaning near (not in), is expressed by ad or apud with the accusative.
pgna ad Canns, the fight at Cannae.
conchs ad Citam legunt (De Or. 2.22), at Caieta (along the shore).
ad (apud) nfers, in the world below (near, or among, those below).
|
ad fors, at the doors.
|
ad inuam, at the door.
|
NOTE 1.In the neighborhood of may be expressed by circ with the accusative; among, by apud with the accusative:
|
apud Graecs, among the Greeks.
|
apud m, at my house.
|
|
apud Solnss (Leg. 2.41), at Soli.
|
circ Capuam, round about Capua.
|
NOTE 2.In citing an author, apud is regularly used; in citing a particular work, in. Thus,apud Xenophntem, in Xenophon; but, in Xenophntis Oeconomic, in Xenophon's conomicus [p. 271]
Large islands, and all places when thought of as a territory and not as a locality, are treated like names of countries:
in Sicili, in Sicily.
in Ithac lepors illt moriuntur (Plin. H. N. 8.226), in Ithaca hares, when carried there, die. [Ulysses lived at Ithaca would require Ithacae.]
The Ablative without a preposition is used to denote the place from which in certain idiomatic expressions:
cessisset patri (Mil. 68), he would have left his country.
patri pellere, to drive out of the country.
man mittere, to emancipate (let go from the hand).
The poets and later writers often omit the preposition with the place from which or to which when it would be required in classical prose:
mns Acheronte remisss (Aen. 5.99), the spirits returned from Acheron.
Scythi profect; (Q. C. 4.12.11), setting out from Scythia.
taliam [gap in text] Lvniaque vnit ltora (Aen. 1.2), he came to Italy and the Lavinian shores.
terram Hesperiam venis (id. 2.781, you shall come to the Hesperian land.
Aegyptum proficscitur (Tac. Ann. 2.59), he sets out for Egypt.
In poetry the place to which is often expressed by the Dative, occasionally also in later prose:
it clmor cael (Aen. 5.451), a shout goes up to the sky.
facilis dscnsus Avern (id. 6.126), easy is the descent to Avernus.
diadma capit repnere iussit (Val. Max. 5.1.9), he ordered him to put back the diadem on his head.
The preposition is not used with the supine in -um ( 509) and in the following old phrases:
|
exsequis re, to go to the funeral.
|
nfitis re, to resort to denial.
|
|
pessum re, to go to ruin.
|
pessum dare, to ruin (cf. perd). |
vnum dare, to sell (give to sale). [Hence vndere.]
vnum re, to be sold (go to sale). [Hence vnre.]
fors (used as adverb), out: as,fors gred, to go out of doors.
suppetis advenre, to come to one's assistance.
When two or more names of place are used with a verb of motion, each must be under its own construction:
quadridu qu haec gesta sunt rs ad Chrsogonum in castra L. Sullae Vol terrs dfertur (Rosc. Am. 20), within four days after this was done, th matter was reported TO Chrysogonus IN Sulla's camp AT Volaterr.
NOTE.The accusative with or without a preposition is often used in Latin when motion to a place is implied but not expressed in English (see k, N.). [p. 272]
Domum denoting the place to which, and the locative dom, may be modified by a possessive pronoun or a genitive:
domum rgis (Deiot. 17), to the king's house. [But also in M. Laecae domum (Cat. 1.8), to Marcus Lca's house.]
dom meae, at my house; dom Caesaris, at Csar's house.
dom suae vel alinae, at his own or another's house.
NOTE.At times when thus modified, and regularly when otherwise modified, in domum or in dom is used:
in domum prvtam conveniunt (Tac. H. 4.55), they come to gether in a private house.
in Mrc Crass castissim dom (Cael. 9), in the chaste home of Marcus Crassus. [Cf. ex Annin Milnis dom, 302. e.]
The place where is denoted by the Ablative without a preposition in the following instances:
1. Often in indefinite words, such as loc, parte, etc.:
quibus loc posit<*> (De Or. 3.153), when these are set in position.
qu parte bell vcerant (Liv. 21.22), the branch of warfare in which they were victorious.
locs certs horrea cnstituit (B. C. 3.32), he established granaries in particular places.
2. Frequently with nouns which are qualified by adjectives (regularly when ttus is used):
medi urbe (Liv. 1.33), in the middle of the city.
tt Sicili (Verr. 4.51), throughout Sicily (in the whole of Sicily).
tt Tarracn (De Or. 2.240), in all Tarracina.
cnct Asi atque Graeci (Manil. 12), throughout the whole of Asia and Greece too.
3. In many idiomatic expressions which have lost the idea of place:
pendmus anims (Tusc. 1.96), we are in suspense of mind (in our minds).
socius perculs vbscum ader; (Iug. 85.47), I will be present with you, a companion in dangers.
4. Freely in poetry:
ltore curv; (Aen. 3.16), on the winding shore.
antr sclsa relinquit (id. 3.446), she leaves them shut up in the cave.
pr, Hesperi (id. 3.503), in Epirus, in Hesperia.
premit altum corde dolrem (id. 1.209), he keeps down the pain deep in his heart.
The way by which is put in the Ablative without a preposition:
vi brevire equits praems; (Fam. 10.9), I sent forward the cavalry by a shorter road.
Aegae mar tricit (Liv. 37.14), he crossed by way of the gean Sea.
prvehimur pelag (Aen. 3.506), we sail forth over the sea.
NOTE.In this use the way by which is conceived as the means of passage. [p. 273]
Position is frequently expressed by the Ablative with ab (rarely ex), properly meaning from:
202
terg, in the rear; sinistr, on the left hand. [Cf. hinc, on this side.]
parte Pompin, on the side of Pompey.
ex alter parte, on the other side.
mgn ex parte, in a great degree (from, i.e. in, a great part).
Verbs of placing, though implying motion, take the construction of the place where:
Such are pn, loc, colloc, statu, cnstitu, etc.:
qu in sde ac dom collocvit (Par. 25), who put [one] into his place and home.
statuitur eques Rmnus in Aprn convvi (Verr. 3.62), a Roman knight is brought into a banquet of Apronius.
nsula Dlos in Aegae mar posita (Manil. 55), the island of Delos, situated in the gean Sea.
s in n Pompi omnia pnertis (id. 59), if you made everything depend on Pompey alone.
NOTE.Compounds of pn take various constructions (see the Lexicon under each word).
Several verbs are followed by the Ablative.
These are acquisc, dlector, laetor, gaude, glrior, ntor, st, mane, fd, cnfd, cnsist, contineor.
nminibus veterum glriantur (Or. 169), they glory in the names of the ancients. [Also, d dvitis (in virtte, circ rem, aliquid, haec) glrir.]
sp nt; (Att. 3.9), to rely on hope.
prdenti fdns (Off. 1.81), trusting in prudence.
NOTE.The ablative with these verbs sometimes takes the preposition in (but fd in is late), and the ablative with them is probably locative. Thus,in quibus causa ntitur (Cael. 25), on whom the case depends.
With several of these verbs the neuter Accusative of pronouns is often found. For fd and cnfd with the Dative, see 367.
The verbals frtus, contentus, and laetus take the Locative Ablative:
frtus grti Brt; (Att. 5.21.12), relying on the favor of Brutus.
laetus praed, rejoicing in the booty.
contentus sorte, content with his lot. [Possibly Ablative of Cause.]
nn fuit contentus glri (Dom. 101), he was not content with the glory.
NOTE.So intentus, rarely: as,aliqu negti intentus (Sall. Cat. 2), intent on some occupation. [p. 274]
SPECIAL USES OF PREPOSITIONS
203
Adverbs and Prepositions
Certain Adverbs and Adjectives are sometimes used as Prepositions:
The adverbs prdi, postrdi, propius, proxim, less frequently the adjectives propior and proximus, may be followed by the Accusative:
prdi Nns Mis (Att. 2.11), the day before the Nones of May (see 631).
postrdi lds (Att. 16.4), the day after the games.
propius perculum (Liv. 21.1), nearer to danger.
propior montem (Iug. 49), nearer the hill.
proximus mare ceanum (B. G. 3.7), nearest the ocean.
NOTE.Prdi and postrdi take also the Genitive ( 359. b). Propior, propius, proximus, and proxim, take also the Dative, or the Ablative with ab:
propius Tiber quam Thermopyls (Nep. Hann. 8), nearer to the Tiber than to Thermopyl.
Sugambr qu sunt proxim Rhn (B. G. 6.35), the Sugambri, who are nearest to the Rhine.
proximus postrm (Or. 217), next to the last.
sque sometimes takes the Accusative, but sque ad is much more common:
termins sque Libyae (Iust. 1.1.5), to the bounds of Libya.
sque ad castra hostium (B. G. 1.51), to the enemy's camp.
The adverbs palam, procul, simul, may be used as prepositions and take the Ablative:
rem crditr palam popul solvit (Liv. 6.14), he paid the debt to his creditor in the presence of the people.
haud procul castrs in modum mnicip exstrcta (Tac. H. 4.22), not far from the camp, built up like a town.
simul nbs habitat barbarus (Ov. Tr. 5.10.29), close among us dwells the barbarian.
NOTE.But simul regularly takes cum; procul is usually followed by ab in classic writers; and the use of palam as a preposition is comparatively late.
The adverb clam is found in early Latin with the Accusative, also once with the Genitive and once in classical Latin with the Ablative:
clam mtrem suam (Pl. Mil. 112), unknown to his mother.
clam patris (id. Merc. 43), without his father's knowledge.
clam vbs (B. C. 2.32.8), without your knowledge. [p. 275]
Prepositions often retain their original meaning as Adverbs:
1. Ante and post in relations of time:
qus paul ante dximus (Brut. 32), whom I mentioned a little while ago.
post tribus dibus, three days after (cf. 424. f).
2. Adversus, circiter, prope:
nm adversus bat (Liv. 37.13.8), no one went out in opposition.
circiter pars qurta (Sall. Cat. 56), about the fourth part.
prope exanimtus, nearly lifeless.
3. or ab, off, in expressions of distance, with the Ablative of Degree of Difference ( 414):
mlibus passuum circiter dubus Rmnrum adventum exspectbant (B. G. 5.32), at a distance of about two miles (about two miles off) they awaited the approach of the Romans.
4. In general, prepositions ending in -:
Aeolus haec contr (Aen. 1.76), thus olus in reply.
forte fuit ixt tumulus (id. 3.22), there happened to be a mound close by.
Some Prepositions and Adverbs which imply comparison are followed, like comparatives, by quam, which may be separated by several words, or even clauses.
Such words are ante, prius, post, poste, prdi, postrdi; also magis and prae in compounds:
neque ante dmsit eum quam fidem dedit (Liv. 39.10), nor did he let him go until he gave a pledge.
post diem tertium quam dxerat (Mil. 44), the third day after he said it.
Cat ipse iam servre quam pgnre mvult (Att. 7.15), Cato himself by this time had rather be a slave than fight.
Gallrum quam Rmnrum imperia praeferre (B. G. 1.17), [they] prefer the rule of Gauls to that of Romans.
NOTE.The ablative of time is sometimes followed by quam in the same way ( 424. f): as,octv mnse quam (Liv. 21.15), within eight months after, etc.
The following Prepositions sometimes come after their nouns: ad, citr, circum, contr, d, (ex), inter, ixt, penes, propter, ultr; so regularly tenus and versus, and occasionally others:
[sus] quem penes arbitrium est et is et norma loquend; (Hor. A. P. 72), custom, under whose control is the choice, right, and rule of speech.
cius m corpus est cremtum, quod contr decuit ab ill meum (Cat. M. 84), whose body I burned [on the funeral pile], while on the contrary (contrary to which) mine should have been burned by him. [p. 276]
SYNTAX OF THE VERB
MOODS AND TENSES
The Syntax of the Verb relates chiefly to the use of the Moods (which express the manner in which the action is conceived) and the Tenses (which express the time of the action). There is no difference in origin between mood and tense; and hence the uses of mood and tense frequently cross each other. Thus the tenses sometimes have modal significations (compare indicative in apodosis, 517. c; future for imperative, 449. b); and the moods sometimes express time (compare subjunctive in future conditions, 516. b, and notice the want of a future subjunctive).
The parent language had, besides the Imperative mood, two or more forms with modal signification. Of these, the Subjunctive appears with two sets of terminations, --m, --s, in the present tense (moneam, dcam), and --m, --s, in the present (amem) or other tenses (essem, dxissem). The Optative was formed by i-, -, with the present stem (sim, duim) or the perfect (dxerim). (See details in 168, 169.)
Each mood has two general classes or ranges of meaning. The uses of the Subjunctive may all be classed under the general ideas of will or desire and of action vividly conceived; and the uses of the Optative under the general ideas of wish and of action vaguely conceived.
It must not be supposed, however, that in any given construction either the subjunctive or the optative was deliberately used because it denoted conception or possibility. On the contrary, each construction has had its own line of development from more tangible and literal forms of thought to more vague and ideal; and by this process the mood used came to have in each case a special meaning, which was afterwards habitually associated with it in that construction. Similar developments have taken place in English. Thus, the expression I would do this has become equivalent to a mild command, while by analysis it is seen to be the apodosis of a present condition contrary to fact ( 517): if I were you, etc. By further analysis, I would do is seen to have meant, originally, I should have wished (or I did wish) to do.
In Latin, the original Subjunctive and the Optative became confounded in meaning and in form, and were merged in the Subjunctive, at first in the present tense. Then new tense-forms of the subjunctive were formed,
204 and to these the original as well as the derived meanings of both moods became attached (see 438). All the independent uses of the Latin subjunctive are thus to be accounted for.
The dependent uses of the subjunctive have arisen from the employment of some independent subjunctive construction in connection with a main statement. Most frequently the main statement is prefixed to a sentence containing a subjunctive, as a more complete expression of a complex idea ( 268). Thus a question implying a general negative (qun rogem? why should n't I ask?) might have the general negative expressed in a prefixed statement (nlla causa est, there is no reason); or abeat, let him go away, may be expanded into sine abeat. When such a combination comes into habitual use, the original meaning of the subjunctive partially or wholly disappears and a new meaning arises by implication. Thus, in msit lgts qu dcerent, he sent ambassadors to say (i.e. who should say), the original hortatory sense of the subjunctive is partially lost, and the mood becomes in part an expression of purpose. Similar processes may be seen in the growth of Apodosis. Thus, tolle hanc opninem, lctum sustuleris, remove this notion, you will have done away with grief (i.e. if you remove, etc.). [p. 277]
The Infinitive is originally a verbal noun ( 451), modifying a verb like other nouns: vol vidre, lit. I wish for-seeing: compare English what went ye out for to see? But in Latin it has been surprisingly developed, so as to have forms for tense, and some proper modal characteristics, and to be used as a substitute for finite moods.
The other noun and adjective forms of the verb have been developed in various ways, which are treated under their respective heads below.
The proper Verbal Constructions may be thus classified:
I. Indicative: Direct Assertion or Question ( 437).
|
II. Subjunctive: |
a. Independent Uses: |
1. Exhortation or Command ( 439). |
|
|
2. Concession ( 440). |
|
|
3. Wish ( 441). |
|
|
4. Question of Doubt etc. ( 444). |
|
|
5. Possibility or Contingency ( 446). |
|
b. Dependent Uses: |
1. Conditions Future (less vivid) ( 516. b, c). Contrary to Fact ( 517). |
|
|
2. Purpose (with ut, n) ( 531). |
|
|
3. Characteristic (Relative Clause) ( 535). |
|
|
4. Result (with ut, ut nn) ( 537). |
|
|
5. Time (with cum) ( 546). |
|
|
6. Intermediate (Indirect Discourse) ( 592). |
|
|
7. Indirect Questions or Commands ( 574, 588). |
|
III. Imperative: |
1. Direct Commands (often Subjunctive) ( 448). |
|
2. Statutes, Laws, and Wills ( 449. 2). |
|
3. Prohibitions (early or poetic use) ( 450. a). |
|
IV. Infinitive: |
a. Subject of esse and Impersonal Verbs ( 452, 454). |
|
b. Objective Constructions: |
1. Complementary Infinitive ( 456). |
|
|
2. Indirect Discourse (with Subject Accusative) ( 580). |
|
c. Idiomatic Uses: |
1. Purpose (poetic or Greek use) ( 460). |
|
|
2. Exclamation (with Subject Accusative) ( 462). |
|
|
3. Historical Infinitive ( 463). |
MOODS
INDICATIVE MOOD
The Indicative is the mood of direct assertions or questions when there is no modification of the verbal idea except that of time.
The Indicative is sometimes used where the English idiom would suggest the Subjunctive:
longum est, it would be tedious [if, etc.]; satius erat, it would have been better [if, etc.]; persequ possum, I might follow up [in detail].
NOTE.Substitutes for the Indicative are (1) the Historical Infinitive ( 463), and (2) the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse ( 580).
For the Indicative in Conditions, see 515, 516; for the Indicative in implied Commands, see 449. b. [p. 278]
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
The Subjunctive in general expresses the verbal idea with some modification
205 such as is expressed in English by auxiliaries, by the infinitive, or by the rare subjunctive ( 157. b).
The Subjunctive is used independently to express
1. An Exhortation or Command (Hortatory Subjunctive: 439).
2. A Concession (Concessive Subjunctive: 440).
3. A Wish (Optative Subjunctive: 441).
4. A Question of Doubt etc. (Deliberative Subjunctive: 444).
5. A Possibility or Contingency (Potential Subjunctive: 446).
For the special idiomatic uses of the Subjunctive in Apodosis, see 514.
The Subjunctive is used in dependent clauses to express
1. Condition: future or contrary to fact ( 516. b, c, 517).
2. Purpose (Final, 531).
3. Characteristic ( 535).
4. Result (Consecutive, 537).
5. Time (Temporal, 546).
6. Indirect Question ( 574).
The Subjunctive is also used with Conditional Particles of Comparison ( 524), and in subordinate clauses in the Indirect Discourse ( 580).
SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES
Hortatory Subjunctive
The Hortatory Subjunctive is used in the present tense to express an exhortation or a command. The negative is n.
hs latrns interficimus (B. G. 7.38), let us kill these robbers.
caveant intemperantiam, meminerint vercundiae (Off. 1.122), let them shun excess and cherish modesty.
NOTE 1.The hortatory subjunctive occurs rarely in the perfect (except in prohibitions: 450): as,Epicrus hc vderit (Acad. 2.19), let Epicurus look to this.
NOTE 2.The term hortatory subjunctive is sometimes restricted to the first person plural, the second and third persons being designated as the jussive subjunctive; but the constructions are substantially identical. [p. 279]
NOTE 3.Once in Cicero and occasionally in the poets and later writers the negative with the hortatory subjunctive is nn: as, lgibus nn recdmus (Clu. 155), let us not abandon the laws.
The Second Person of the hortatory subjunctive is used only of an indefinite subject, except in prohibitions, in early Latin, and in poetry:
iniris fortnae, qus ferre neques, dfugiend relinqus (Tusc. 5.118), the wrongs of fortune, which you cannot bear, leave behind by flight.
exorire aliquis ultor (Aen. 4.625), rise, some avenger.
ist bon tre dum adsit, cum absit n requrs (Cat. M. 33), use this blessing while it is present; when it is wanting do not regret it.
doces iter et sacra stia pands (Aen. 6.109), show us the way and lay open the sacred portals.
For Negative Commands (prohibitions), see 450.
The Imperfect and Pluperfect of the hortatory subjunctive denote an unfulfilled obligation in past time:
morertur, inquis (Rab. Post. 29), he should have died, you will say.
potius docret (Off. 3.88), he should rather have taught.
n poposcisss (Att. 2.1.3), you should not have asked.
saltem aliquid d pondere dtrxisset (Fin. 4.57), at least he should have taken something from the weight.
NOTE 1.In this construction the Pluperfect usually differs from the Imperfect only in more clearly representing the time for action as momentary or as past.
NOTE 2.This use of the subjunctive is carefully to be distinguished from the potential use ( 446). The difference is indicated by the translation, should or ought (not would or might).
The Hortatory Subjunctive is used to express a concession.
206 The Present is used for present time, the Perfect for past. The negative is n.
sit fr, sit sacrilegus: at est bonus impertor (Verr. 5.4), grant he is a thief, a godless wretch: yet he is a good general.
fuerit alis; tibi quand esse coepit (Verr. 2.1.37), suppose he was [so] to others; when did he begin to be to you?
nm is umquam fuit: n fuerit (Or. 101), there never was such a one [you will say]: granted (let there not have been).
n sit summum malum dolor, malum cert est (Tusc. 2.14), granted that pain is not the greatest evil, at least it is an evil.
NOTE.The concessive subjunctive with quamvs and licet is originally hortatory ( 527. a, b).
For other methods of expressing Concession, see 527.
For the Hortatory Subjunctive denoting a Proviso, see 528. a. [p. 280]
Optative Subjunctive
The Optative Subjunctive is used to express a Wish. The present tense denotes the wish as possible, the imperfect as unaccomplished in present time, the pluperfect as unaccomplished in past time. The negative is n:
ita vvam (Att. 5.15), as true as I live, so may I live.
ne vvam s sci; (id. 4.16.8), I wish I may not live if I know.
d t perduint (Deiot. 21), the gods confound thee!
valeant, valeant cvs me; sint incolums (Mil. 93), farewell, farewell to my fellow-citizens; may they be secure from harm.
d facerent sine patre forem (Ov. M. 8.72), would that the gods allowed me to be without a father (but they do not)!
The perfect subjunctive in a wish is archaic:
d faxint (Fam. 14.3.3), may the gods grant.
quod d men verterint (Phil. 12.14, in a religious formula), and may the gods avert this omen.
The Optative Subjunctive is often preceded by the particle utinam; so regularly in the imperfect and pluperfect:
falsus utinam vts sim (Liv. 21.10.10), I wish I may be a false prophet.
utinam Cldius vveret (Mil. 103), would that Clodius were now alive.
utinam m mortuum vdisss (Q. Fr. 1.3.1), would you had seen me dead.
utinam n vr scrberem (Fam. 5.17.3), would that I were not writing the truth.
NOTE.Utinam nn is occasionally used instead of utinam n: as,utinam susceptus nn essem (Att. 9.9.3), would that I had not been born.
In poetry and old Latin ut or ut often introduces the optative subjunctive; and in poetry s or s with the subjunctive sometimes expresses a wish:
ut pereat positum rbgine tlum (Hor. S. 2.1.43), may the weapon unused perish with rust.
s angulus ille accdat (id. 2.6.8), O if that corner might only be added!
s nunc s nbs ille aureus rmus ostendat (Aen. 6.187), if now that golden branch would only show itself to us!
NOTE 1.The subjunctive with ut (ut) or utinam was originally deliberative, meaning how may I, etc. ( 444). The subjunctive with s or s is a protasis ( 512. a), the apodosis not being expressed.
NOTE 2.The subjunctive of wish without a particle is seldom found in the imperfect or pluperfect except by sequence of tenses in Indirect Discourse ( 585): as,ac venerta Cers, ita culm surgeret alt (Hor. S. 2.2.124), and Ceres worshipped [with libations] that so she might rise with tall stalk. [I<*> addressing the goddess directly the prayer would be: ita surgs.] [p. 281]
Velim and vellem, and their compounds, with a subjunctive or infinitive, are often equivalent to an optative subjunctive:
velim tibi persudes (Fam. 9.13.2), I should like to have you believe (I should wish that you would persuade yourself).
d Menedm vellem vrum fuisset, d rgn velim vrum sit (Att. 15.4.4), about Menedemus I wish it had been true; about the queen I wish it may be.
nllem accidisset tempus (Fam. 3.10.2), I wish the time never had come.
mllem Cerberum metuers (Tusc. 1.12), I had rather have had you afraid of Cerberus (I should have preferred that you feared Cerberus).
NOTE.Velim etc., in this use, are either potential subjunctives, or apodoses with the protasis omitted ( 447. 1. N.). The thing wished may be regarded as a substantive clause used as object of the verb of wishing ( 565. N.1).
Deliberative Subjunctive
The Subjunctive was used in sentences of interrogative form, at first when the speaker wished information in regard to the will or desire of the person addressed. The mood was therefore hortatory in origin. But such questions when addressed by the speaker to himself, as if asking his own advice, become deliberative or, not infrequently, merely exclamatory. In such cases the mood often approaches the meaning of the Potential (see 445). In these uses the subjunctive is often called Deliberative or Dubitative.
The Subjunctive is used in questions implying (1) doubt, indignation, or (2) an impossibility of the thing's being done. The negative is nn.
quid agam, idics? qu m vertam (Verr. 5.2), what am I to do, judges ? whither shall I turn?
etiamne eam saltem (Pl. Rud. 1275), shall I greet her?
quid hc homine facis? quod supplicium dgnum libdin ius invenis (Verr. 2.40), what are you to do with this man? what fit penalty can you devise for his wantonness?
an ego nn venrem (Phil. 2.3), what, should I not have come?
quid dcerem (Att. 6.3.9), what was I to say?
quis enim clverit gnem (Ov. H. 15.7), who could conceal the flame?
NOTE.The hortatory origin of some of these questions is obvious. Thus,quid facimus?=facimus [aliquid], quid? let us dowhat? (Compare the expanded form quid vs facimus? what do you wish us to do?) Once established, it was readily transferred to the past: quid faciam? what AM I to do? quid facerem? what WAS I to do? Questions implying impossibility, however, cannot be distinguished from Apodosis (cf. 517).
In many cases the question has become a mere exclamation, rejecting a suggested possibility:
mihi umquam bonrum praesidium dfutrum putrem (Mil. 94), could 1 think that the defence of good men would ever fail me!
NOTE.The indicative is sometimes used in deliberative questions: as,quid ag, what am I to do? [p. 282]
Potential Subjunctive
Of the two principal uses of the Subjunctive in independent sentences (cf. 436), the second, or Potential Subjunctive,
207 is found in a variety of sentence-forms having as their common element the fact that the mood represents the action as merely conceived or possible, not as desired (hortatory, optative) or real (indicative). Some of these uses are very old and may go back to the Indo-European parent speech, but no satisfactory connection between the Potential and the Hortatory and Optative Subjunctive has been traced. There is no single English equivalent for the Potential Subjunctive; the mood must be rendered, according to circumstances, by the auxiliaries would, should, may, might, can, could.
The Potential Subjunctive is used to suggest an action as possible or conceivable. The negative is nn.
In this use the Present and the Perfect refer without distinction to the immediate future; the Imperfect (occasionally the Perfect) to past time; the Pluperfect (which is rare) to what might have happened.
The Potential Subjunctive has the following uses:
1. In cautious or modest assertions in the first person singular of expressions of saying, thinking, or wishing (present or perfect):
pce tu dxerim (Mil. 103), I would say by your leave.
haud sciam an (Lael. 51), I should incline to think.
t velim sc exstims (Fam. 12.6), I should like you to think so.
certum affmre nn ausim (Liv. 3.23), I should not dare to assert as sure.
NOTE.Vellem, nllem, or mllem expressing an unfulfilled wish in present time may be classed as independent potential subjunctive or as the apodosis of an unexpressed condition ( 521): asvellem adesset M. Antnius (Phil. 1.16), I could wish Antony were here.
2. In the indefinite second person singular of verbs of saying, thinking, and the like (present or imperfect):
crds nn d puer scrptum sed puer; (Plin. Ep. 4.7.7), you would think that it was written not about a boy but by a boy.
crders victs (Liv. 2.43.9), you would have thought them conquered.
res dcers (id. 2.35.5), you would have said they were culprits.
vidrs susurrs (Hor. S. 2.8.77), you might have seen them whispering (lit. whispers).
fret assimilre posss (Ov. M. 5.6), you might compare it to a sea.
3. With other verbs, in all persons, when some word or phrase in the context implies that the action is expressed as merely possible or conceivable: [p. 283]
nl ego contulerim icund snus amc; (Hor. S. 1.5.44), when in my senses I should compare nothing with an interesting friend.
fortnam citius reperis quam retines (Pub. Syr. 168), you may sooner find fortune than keep it.
aliquis dcat (Ter. And. 640), somebody may say.
NOTE.In this use the subjunctive may be regarded as the apodosis of an undeveloped protasis. When the conditional idea becomes clearer, it finds expression in a formal protasis, and a conditional sentence is developed.
Forsitan, perhaps, regularly takes the Potential Subjunctive except in later Latin and in poetry, where the Indicative is also common:
forsitan quaertis qu iste terror sit (Rosc. Am. 5), you may perhaps inquire what this alarm is.
forsitan temer fcerim (id. 31), perhaps I have acted rashly.
NOTE.The subjunctive clause with forsitan (=fors sit an) was originally an Indirect Question: it would be a chance whether, etc.
Fortasse, perhaps, is regularly followed by the Indicative; sometimes, however, by the Subjunctive, but chiefly in later Latin:
quaers fortasse (Fam. 15.4.13), perhaps you will ask.
NOTE.Other expressions for perhaps are (1) forsan (chiefly poetical; construed with the indicative or the subjunctive, more commonly the indicative), fors (rare and poetical; construed with either the indicative or the subjunctive). Forsit (or fors sit) occurs once (Hor. S. 1.6.49) and takes the subjunctive. Fortasse is sometimes followed by the infinitive with subject accusative in Plautus and Terence. Fortassis (rare; construed like fortasse) and fortasse an (very rare; construed with the subjunctive) are also found.
IMPERATIVE MOOD
The Imperative is used in Commands and Entreaties:
cnsulite vbs, prspicite patriae, cnservte vs (Cat. 4.3), have a care for yourselves, guard the country, preserve yourselves.
dc, Mrce Tull, sententiam, Marcus Tullius, state your opinion.
t ipsum concute (Hor. S. 1.3.35), examine yourself.
vve, valque (id. 2.5.110), farewell, bless you (live and be well)!
miserre anim nn dgna ferentis (Aen. 2.144), pity a soul bearing undeserved misfortune.
The third person of the imperative is antiquated or poetic:
olls sals popul suprma lx est (Legg. 3.8), the safety of the people shall be their first law.
ista imperia sunt, esque cvs modest prent (id. 3.6), let there be lawful authorities, and let the citizens strictly obey them.
NOTE.In prose the Hortatory Subjunctive is commonly used instead ( 439). [p. 284]
The Future Imperative is used in commands, etc., where there is a distinct reference to future time:
1. In connection with some adverb or other expression that indicates at what time in the future the action of the imperative shall take place. So especially with a future, a future perfect indicative, or (in poetry and early Latin) with a present imperative:
crs petit, dabitur (Pl. Merc. 769), ask to-morrow [and] it shall be given.
cum valtdin cnsulueris, tum cnsulit nvigtin; (Fam. 16.4.3), when you have attended to your health, then look to your sailing.
Phyllida mitte mih, meus est ntlis, Ioll; cum faciam vitul pr frgibus, ipse vent (Ecl. 3.76), send Phyllis to me, it is my birthday, Iollas; when I [shall] sacrifice a heifer for the harvest, come yourself.
dc quibus in terrs, etc., et Phyllida slus habt (id. 3.107), tell in what lands, etc., and have Phyllis for yourself.
2. In general directions serving for all time, as Precepts, Statutes, and Wills:
is iris cvlis csts est (Legg. 3.8), let him (the prtor) be the guardian of civil right.
Bore flante, n art, smen n iacit (Plin. H. N. 18.334), when the north wind blows, plough not nor sow your seed.
The verbs sci, memin, and habe (in the sense of consider) regularly use the Future Imperative instead of the Present:
fliol m auctum sct (Att. 1.2), learn that I am blessed with a little boy.
sc habt, m Tir; (Fam. 16.4.4), so understand it, my good Tiro.
d pall mement, amb; (Pl. Asin. 939), remember, dear, about the gown.
The Future Indicative is sometimes used for the imperative; and qun (why not?) with the Present Indicative may have the force of a command:
s quid acciderit nov, facis ut sciam (Fam. 14.8), you will let me know if anything new happens.
qun accipis (Ter. Haut. 832), here, take it (why not take it?).
Instead of the simple Imperative, cr ut, fac (fac ut), or velim, followed by the subjunctive ( 565), is often used, especially in colloquial language:
cr ut Rmae ss (Att. 1.2), take care to be at Rome.
fac ut valtdinem crs (Fam. 14.17), see that you take care of your health
dom adstis facite (Ter. Eun. 506), be at home, do.
eum mihi velim mitts (Att. 8.11), I wish you would send it to me.
For commands in Indirect Discourse, see 588.
For the Imperative with the force of a Conditional Clause, see 521. b. [p. 285]
Prohibition (Negative Command)
Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose (1) by nl with the Infinitive, (2) by cav with the Present Subjunctive, or (3) by n with the Perfect Subjunctive:
208
(1) nl putre (Lig. 33), do not suppose (be unwilling to suppose).
nl impudns esse (Fam. 12.30.1), don't be shameless.
nlte cgere socis (Verr. 2.1.82), do not compel the allies.
(2) cav puts (Att. 7.20), don't suppose (take care lest you suppose).
cav gnscs (Lig. 14), do not pardon.
cav festns (Fam. 16.12.6), do not be in haste.
(3) n necesse habueris (Att. 16.2.5), do not regard it as necessary.
n ss admrtus (Fam. 7.18.3), do not be surprised.
hc facit; hc n fceris (Div. 2.127), thou shalt do this, thou shalt not do that.
n Apellae quidem dxeris (Fam. 7.25.2), do not tell Apella even.
n vs quidem mortem timueritis (Tusc. 1.98), nor must you fear death.
All three of these constructions are well established in classic prose. The first, which is the most ceremonious, occurs oftenest; the third, though not discourteous, is usually less formal and more peremptory than the others.
NOTE 1.Instead of nl the poets sometimes use other imperatives of similar meaning (cf. 457. a):
parce pis scelerre mans (Aen. 3.42), forbear to defile your pious hands.
ctera mitte loqu; (Hor. Epod. 13.7), forbear to say the rest.
fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. 1.9.13), do not inquire.
NOTE 2.Cav n is sometimes used in prohibitions; also vid n and (colloquially) fac n: as,fac n quid aliud crs (Fam. 16.11), see that you attend to nothing else.
NOTE 3.The present subjunctive with n and the perfect with cav are found in old writers; n with the present is common in poetry at all periods:
n exspecttis (Pl. Ps. 1234), do not wait.
n metus (Mart. Ep. 1.70.13), do not fear.
cave quicquam responderis (Pl. Am. 608), do not make any reply.
NOTE 4.Other negatives sometimes take the place of n:
nihil gnveris (Mur. 65), grant no pardon (pardon nothing).
nec mihi illud dxeris (Fin. 1.25), and do not say this to me.
NOTE 5.The regular connective, and do not, is nve.
The Present Imperative with n is used in prohibitions by early writers and the poets:
n tim (Pl. Curc. 520), don't be afraid.
nimium n crde colr; (Ecl. 2.17), trust not too much to complexion.
equ n crdite (Aen. 2.48), trust not the horse.
The Future Imperative with n is used in prohibitions in laws and formal precepts (see 449. 2). [p. 286]
INFINITIVE MOOD
The Infinitive is properly a noun denoting the action of the verb abstractly. It differs, however, from other abstract nouns in the following points: (1) it often admits the distinction of tense; (2) it is modified by adverbs, not by adjectives; (3) it governs the same case as its verb; (4) it is limited to special constructions.
The Latin Infinitive is the dative or locative case of such a noun
209 and was originally used to denote Purpose; but it has in many constructions developed into a substitute for a finite verb. Hence the variety of its use.
In its use as a verb, the Infinitive may take a Subject Accusative ( 397. e), originally the object of another verb on which the Infinitive depended. Thus iube t valre is literally I command you for being well (cf. substantive clauses, 562. N.).
Infinitive as Noun
The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may be used with est and similar verbs (1) as the Subject, (2) in Apposition with the subject, or (3) as a Predicate Nominative.
210
1. As Subject:
dolre malum est (Fin. 5.84), to suffer pain is an evil.
bellum est sua vitia nsse (Att. 2.17), it's a fine thing to know one's own faults.
praestat compnere flucts (Aen. 1.135), it is better to calm the waves.
2. In Apposition with the Subject:
proinde quasi iniriam facere id dmum esset imperi t; (Sall. Cat. 12), just as if this and this alone, to commit injustice, were to use power. [Here facere is in apposition with id.]
3. As Predicate Nominative:
id est convenienter ntrae vvere (Fin. 4.41), that is to live in conformity with nature. [Cf. t in the last example.]
NOTE 1.An infinitive may be used as Direct Object in connection with a Predicate Accusative ( 393), or as Appositive with such Direct Object:
istuc ipsum nn esse cum fueris miserrimum put; (Tusc. 1.12), for I think this very thing most wretched, not to be when one has been. [Here istuc ipsum belongs to the noun nn esse.]
miserr, invidre, gestre, laetr, haec omnia morbs Graec appellant (id. 3.7), to feel pity, envy, desire, joy,all these things the Greeks call diseases. [Here the infinitives are in apposition with haec.] [p. 287]
NOTE 2.An Appositive or Predicate noun or adjective used with an infinitive n any of these constructions is put in the Accusative, whether the infinitive has a subject expressed or not. Thus,nn esse cupidum pecnia est (Par. 51), to be free from desires (not to be desirous) is money in hand. [No Subject Accusative.]
The infinitive as subject is not common except with est and similar verbs. But sometimes, especially in poetry, it is used as the subject of verbs which are apparently more active in meaning:
qus omns eadem cupere, eadem disse, eadem metuere, in num cogit (Iug. 31), all of whom the fact of desiring, hating, and fearing the same things has united into one.
ingenus didicisse fidliter arts mollit mrs (Ov. P. 2.9.48), faithfully to have learned liberal arts softens the manners.
posse loqu ripitur (Ov. M. 2.483), the power of speech is taken away.
Rarely the Infinitive is used exactly like the Accusative of a noun:
bet vvere ali in ali, vs in voluptte pnitis (Fin. 2.86), a happy life different [philosophers] base on different things, you on pleasure.
quam multa ... facimus caus amcrum, precr ab indgn, supplicre, etc. (Lael. 57), how many things we do for our friends' sake, ask favors from an unworthy person, resort to entreaty, etc.
nihil explrtum habes, n amre quidem aut amr (id. 97), you have nothing assured, not even loving and being loved.
NOTE.Many complementary and other constructions approach a proper accusative use of the infinitive, but their development has been different from that of the examples above. Thus,avritia ... superbiam, crdlittem, des neglegere, omnia vnlia habre docuit (Sall. Cat. 10), avarice taught pride, cruelty, to neglect the gods, and to hold everything at a price.
Infinitive as Apparent Subject of Impersonals
The Infinitive is used as the apparent Subject with many impersonal verbs and expressions:
Such are libet, licet, oportet, decet, placet, vsum est, pudet, piget, necesse est, opus est, etc.:
libet mihi cnsderre (Quinct. 48), it suits me to consider.
necesse est mor (Tusc. 2.2), it is necessary to die.
quid attinet glris loqu nisi cnstanter loqure (Fin. 2.89), what good does it do to talk boastfully unless you speak consistently?
neque m vxisse paenitet (id. 84), I do not feel sorry to have lived.
gubernre m taedbat (Att. 2.7.4), I was tired of being pilot.
NOTE.This use is a development of the Complementary Infinitive ( 456); but the infinitives approach the subject construction and may be con veniently regarded as the subjects of the impersonals. [p. 288]
With impersonal verbs and expressions that take the Infinitive as an apparent subject, the personal subject of the action may be expressed
1. By a Dative, depending on the verb or verbal phrase:
rogant ut id sibi facere liceat (B. G. 1.7), they ask that it be allowed them to do this.
nn lubet enim mihi dplrre vtam (Cat. M. 84), for it does not please me to lament my life.
vsum est mihi d senectte aliquid cnscrbere (id. 1), it seemed good to me to write something about old age.
quid est tam secundum ntram quam senibus mor; (id. 71), what is so much in accordance with nature as for old men to die?
exstingu homin su tempore optbile est (id. 85), for a man to die at the appointed time is desirable.
2. By an Accusative expressed as the subject of the infinitive or the object of the impersonal:
s licet vvere eum quem Sex. Naevius nn volt (Quinct. 94), if it is allowed a man to live against the will of Sextus Nvius.
nnne oportuit praescsse m ante (Ter. And. 239), ought I not to have known beforehand?
rtrem rsc minim decet (Tusc. 4.54), it is particularly unbecoming for an orator to lose his temper.
pudret m dcere (N. D. 1.109), I should be ashamed to say.
cnsilia ineunt qurum es in vestgi paenitre necesse est (B. G. 4.5), they form plans for which they must at once be sorry.
NOTE.Libet, placet, and vsum est take the dative only; oportet, pudet, piget, and generally decet, the accusative only; licet and necesse est take either case.
A predicate noun or adjective is commonly in the Accusative; but with licet regularly, and with other verbs occasionally, the Dative is used:
expedit bons esse vbs (Ter. Haut. 388), it is for your advantage to be good.
licuit esse tis Themistocl; (Tusc. 1.33), Themistocles might have been inactive (it was allowed to Themistocles to be inactive).
mihi neglegent esse nn licet (Att. 1.17.6), I must not be negligent. [But also neglegentem.]
cr hs esse lbers nn licet (Flacc. 71), why is it not allowed these men to be free?
nn est omnibus stantibus necesse dcere (Marc. 33), it is not necessary for all to speak standing.
NOTE.When the subject is not expressed, as being indefinite (one, anybody), a predicate noun or adjective is regularly in the accusative (cf. 452. 3. N.2): as, vel pce vel bell clrum fier licet (Sall. Cat. 3), one can become illustrious either in peace or in war [p. 289]
Complementary Infinitive
Verbs which imply another action of the same subject to complete their meaning take the Infinitive without a subject accusative.
Such are verbs denoting to be able, dare, undertake, remember, forget, be accustomed, begin, continue, cease, hesitate, learn, know how, fear, and the like:
hc que dcere (Cat. M. 32), this I can say.
mitt quaerere (Rosc. Am. 53), I omit to ask.
vereor laudre praesentem (N. D. 1.58), I fear to praise a man to his face.
r ut mtrs venre (Att. 4.1), I beg you will make haste to come.
oblvsc nn possum quae vol; (Fin. 2.104), I cannot forget that which I wish.
dsine id m docre (Tusc. 2.29), cease to teach me that.
dcere solbat, he used to say.
aude dcere, I venture to say.
loqu posse coep, I began to be able to speak.
NOTE.The peculiarity of the Complementary Infinitive construction is that no Subject Accusative is in general admissible or conceivable. But some infinitives usually regarded as objects can hardly be distinguished from this construction when they have no subject expressed. Thus vol dcere and vol m dcere mean the same thing, I wish to speak, but the latter is object-infinitive, while the former is not apparently different in origin and construction from que dcere (complementary infinitive), and again vol eum dcere, I wish him to speak, is essentially different from either (cf. 563. b).
Many verbs take either a Subjunctive Clause or a Complementary Infinitive, without difference of meaning.
Such are verbs signifying willingness, necessity, propriety, resolve, command, prohibition, effort, and the like (cf. 563):
dcernere optbat (Q. C. 3.11.1), he was eager to decide.
optvit ut tollertur (Off. 3.94), he was eager to be taken up.
oppgnre contendit (B. G. 5.21), he strove to take by storm.
contendit ut caperet (id. 5.8), he strove to take.
bellum gerere cnstituit (id. 4.6), he decided to carry on war.
cnstitueram ut manrem (Att. 16.10.1), I had decided to remain.
NOTE 1.For the infinitive with subject accusative used with some of these verbs instead of a complementary infinitive, see 563.
NOTE 2.Some verbs of these classes never take the subjunctive, but are identical in meaning with others which do:
es qus ttr dbent dserunt (Off. 1.28), they forsake those whom they ought to protect.
ave pgnre (Att. 2.18.3), I'm anxious to fight. [p. 290]
In poetry and later writers many verbs may have the infinitive, after the analogy of verbs of more literal meaning that take it in prose:
furit t reperre (Hor. Od. 1.15.27), he rages to find thee. [A forcible way of saying cupit ( 457, 563. b).]
saevit exstinguere nmen (Ov. M. 1.200), he rages to blot out the name.
fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. 1.9.13), forbear to ask (cf. 450. N. 1).
parce pis scelerre mans (Aen. 3.42), forbear to defile your pious hands.
A Predicate Noun or Adjective after a complementary infinitive takes the case of the subject of the main verb:
fierque studbam ius prdenti doctior (Lael. 1), I was eager to become more wise through his wisdom.
sci quam soles esse occuptus (Fam. 16.21.7), I know how busy you usually are (are wont to be).
brovis esse labr, obscrus f; (Hor. A. P. 25), I struggle to be brief, I become obscure.
Infinitive with Subject Accusative
The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is used with verbs and other expressions of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving (Indirect Discourse, 579):
dcit montem ab hostibus tenr (B. G. 1.22), he says that the hill is held by the enemy. [Direct: mns ab hostibus tentur.]
Infinitive of Purpose
In a few cases the Infinitive retains its original meaning of Purpose.
The infinitive is used in isolated passages instead of a subjunctive clause after habe, d, ministr:
tantum habe pollicr (Fam. 1.5A. 3), so much I have to promise. [Here the more formal construction would be quod pollicear.]
ut Iov bibere ministrret (Tusc. 1.65), to serve Jove with wine (to drink).
merdi bibere dat; (Cato R. R. 89), give (to) drink at noonday.
Partus, sutus, and their compounds, and a few other participles (used as adjectives), take the infinitive like the verbs from which they come:
id quod part sunt facere (Quint. 8), that which they are ready to do.
adsufact superr (B. G. 6.24), used to being conquered.
curr succdere sut; (Aen. 3.541), used to being harnessed to the chariot
cpis bellre cnsuts (B. Afr. 73), forces accustomed to fighting. [p. 291]
NOTE.In prose these words more commonly take the Gerund or Gerundive construction ( 503 ff.) either in the genitive, the dative, or the accusative with ad:
nsutus nvigand (B. G. 5.6), unused to making voyages.
alends lbers suti (Tac. Ann. 14.27), accustomed to supporting children.
corpora nsuta ad onera portanda (B. C. 1.78), bodies unused to carry burdens.
The poets and early writers often use the infinitive to express purpose when there is no analogy with any prose construction:
flius intr iit vidre quid agat (Ter. Hec. 345), your son has gone in to see what he is doing. [In prose: the supine vsum.]
nn ferr Libycs populre Pents vnimus (Aen. 1.527), we have not come to lay waste with the sword the Libyan homes.
lrcam dnat habre vir; (id. 5.262), he gives the hero a breastplate to wear. [In prose: habendam.]
NOTE.So rarely in prose writers of the classic period.
For the Infinitive used instead of a Substantive Clause of Purpose, see 457.
For tempus est abre, see 504. N. 2.
Peculiar Infinitives
Many Adjectives take the Infinitive in poetry, following a Greek idiom:
drus compnere verss (Hor. S. 1.4.8), harsh in composing verse.
cantr dgnus (Ecl. 5.54), worthy to be sung. [In prose: qu canttur.]
fortis trctre serpents (Hor. Od. 1.37.26), brave to handle serpents.
cantre pert; (Ecl. 10.32), skilled in song.
facils aurem praebre (Prop. 3.14.15), ready to lend an ear.
nescia vinc pectora (Aen. 12.527), hearts not knowing how to yield.
t vidre aegrt; (Plaut. Trin. 75), sick of seeing you.
Rarely in poetry the infinitive is used to express result:
fingit equum docilem magister re viam qu mnstret eques (Hor. Ep. 1.2.64), the trainer makes the horse gentle so as to go in the road the rider points out.
hc levre ... pauperem labribus voctus audit (Hor. Od. 2.18.38), he, when called, hears, so as to relieve the poor man of his troubles.
NOTE.These poetic constructions were originally regular and belong to the Infinitive as a noun in the Dative or Locative case ( 451). They had been supplanted, however, by other more formal constructions, and were afterwards restored in part through Greek influence.
The infinitive occasionally occurs as a pure noun limited by a demonstrative, a possessive, or some other adjective:
hc nn dolre (Fin. 2.18), this freedom from pain. [Cf. ttum hc bet vvere (Tusc. 5.33), this whole matter of the happy life.]
nostrum vvere (Per. 1.9), our life (to live).
scire tuum (id. 1.27), your knowledge (to know). [p. 292]
Exclamatory Infinitive
The Infinitive, with Subject Accusative,
211 may be used in Exclamations (cf. 397. d):
t in tants aerumns propter m incidisse (Fam. 14.1), alas, that you should have fallen into such grief for me!
mne incept dsistere victam (Aen. 1.37), what! I beaten desist from my purpose?
NOTE 1.The interrogative particle -ne is often attached to the emphatic word (as in the second example).
NOTE 2.The Present and the Perfect Infinitive are used in this construction with their ordinary distinction of time ( 486).
A subjunctive clause, with or without ut, is often used elliptically in exclamatory questions. The question may be introduced by the interrogative -ne:
quamquam quid loquor? t ut lla rs frangat (Cat. 1.22), yet why do I speak? [the idea] that anything should bend you!
egone ut t interpellem (Tusc. 2.42), what, I interrupt you?
ego tibi rscerer (Q. Fr. 1.3), I angry with you?
NOTE.The Infinitive in exclamations usually refers to something actually occurring; the Subjunctive, to something contemplated.
Historical Infinitive
The Infinitive is often used for the Imperfect Indicative in narration, and takes a subject in the Nominative:
tum Catilna pollicr novs tabuls (Sall. Cat. 21), then Catiline promised abolition of debts (clean ledgers).
ego nstre ut mihi respondret (Verr. 2.188), I kept urging him to answer me.
pars cdere, ali nsequ; neque sgna neque rdins observre; ubi quemque perculum cperat, ibi resistere ac prpulsre; arma, tla, equ, vir, hosts atque cvs permixt; nihil cnsili neque imperi ag; fors omnia regere (Iug. 51), a part give way, others press on; they hold neither to standards nor ranks; where danger overtook them, there each would stand and fight; arms, weapons, horses, men, foe and friend, mingled in confusion; nothing went by counsel or command; chance ruled all.
NOTE.This construction is not strictly historical, but rather descriptive, and is never used to state a mere historical fact. It is rarely found in subordinate clauses. Though occurring in most of the writers of all periods, it is most frequent in the historians Sallust, Livy, Tacitus. It does not occur in Suetonius. [p. 293]
TENSES
The number of possible Tenses is very great. For in each of the three times, Present, Past, and Future, an action may be represented as going on, completed, or beginning; as habitual or isolated; as defined in time or indefinite (aoristic); as determined with reference to the time of the speaker, or as not itself so determined but as relative to some time which is determined; and the past and future times may be near or remote. Thus a scheme of thirty or more tenses might be devised.
But, in the development of forms, which always takes place gradually, no language finds occasion for more than a small part of these. The most obvious distinctions, according to our habits of thought, appear in the following scheme:
|
1. Definite (fixing the time of the action) |
2. Indefinite
|
|
INOOMPLETE |
COMPLETE |
NARRATIVE |
|
Present: |
a. I am writing.
|
d. I have written.
|
g. I write.
|
|
Past: |
b. I was writing.
|
e. I had written.
|
h. I wrote.
|
|
Future: |
c. I shall be writing.
|
f. I shall have written.
|
i. I shall write.
|
Most languages disregard some of these distinctions, and some make other distinctions not here given. The Indo-European parent speech had a Present tense to express a and g, a Perfect to express d, an Aorist to express h, a Future to express c and i, and an Imperfect to express b. The Latin, however, confounded the Perfect and Aorist in a single form (the Perfect scrps), thus losing all distinction of form between d and h, and probably in a great degree the distinction of meaning. The nature of this confusion may be seen by comparing dx, dicv, and didic (all Perfects derived from the same root, DIC), with ἔδειξα, Skr. adiksham, δέδειχα, Skr. didea. Latin also developed two new forms, those for e (scrpseram) and f (scrpser), and thus possessed six tenses, as seen in 154. c.
The lines between these six tenses in Latin are not hard and fast, nor are they precisely the same that we draw in English. Thus in many verbs the form corresponding to I have written (d) is used for those corresponding to I am writing (a) and I write (g) in a slightly different sense, and the form corresponding to I had written (e) is used in like manner for that corresponding to I was writing (b). Again, the Latin often uses the form for I shall have written (f) instead of that for I shall write (i). Thus, nv, I have learned, is used for I know; cnstiterat, he had taken his position, for he stood; cgnver, I shall have learned, for I shall be aware. In general a writer may take his own point of view.
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
INCOMPLETE ACTION: PRESENT TENSE
The Present Tense denotes an action or state (1) as now taking place or existing, and so (2) as incomplete in present time, or (3) as indefinite, referring to no particular time, but denoting a general truth: [p. 294]
sentus haec intellegit, cnsul videt, hc tamen vvit (Cat. 1.2), the senate knows this, the consul sees it, yet this man lives.
tibi concd mes sds (Div. 1.104), I give you my seat (an offer which may or may not be accepted).
exspect quid vels (Ter. And. 34), I await your pleasure (what you wish).
t ctinem nstituis, ille aciem nstruit (Mur. 22), you arrange a case, he arrays an army. [The present is here used of regular employment.]
minra d neglegunt (N. D. 3.86), the gods disregard trifles. [General truth.]
obsequium amcs, vrits odium parit (Ter. And. 68), flattery gains friends, truth hatred. [General truth.]
NOTE.The present of a general truth is sometimes called the Gnomic Present.
The present is regularly used in quoting writers whose works are extant:
Epicrus vr ea dcit (Tusc. 2.17), but Epicurus says such things.
apud illum Ulixs lmenttur in volnere (id. 2.49), in him (Sophocles) Ulysses laments over his wound.
Polyphmum Homrus cum ariete colloquentem facit (id. 5.115), Homer brings in (makes) Polyphemus talking with his ram.
Present with iam di etc.
The Present with expressions of duration of time (especially iam di, iam ddum) denotes an action continuing in the present, but begun in the past (cf. 471. b).
In this use the present is commonly to be rendered by the perfect in English:
iam di gnr quid ags (Fam. 7.9), for a long time I have not known what you were doing.
t iam ddum hortor (Cat. 1.12), I have long been urging you.
patimur mults iam anns (Verr. 5.126), we suffer now these many years. [The Latin perfect would imply that we no longer suffer.]
ann sunt oct cum ista causa verstur (cf. Clu. 82), it is now eight years that this case has been in hand.
annum iam auds Cratippum (Off. 1.1), for a year you have been a hearer of Cratippus.
adhc Plancius m retinet (Fam. 14.1.3), so far Plancius has kept me here.
NOTE 1.The difference in the two idioms is that the English states the beginning and leaves the continuance to be inferred, while the Latin states the continuance and leaves the beginning to be inferred. Compare he has long suffered (and still suffers) with he still suffers (and has suffered long).
NOTE 2.Similarly the Present Imperative with iam ddum indicates that the action commanded ought to have been done or was wished for long ago (cf. the Perfect Imperative in Greek): as,iam ddum smite poens (Aen. 2.103), exact the penalty long delayed. [p. 295]
Conative Present
The Present sometimes denotes an action attempted or begun in present time, but never completed at all (Conative Present, cf. 471. c):
iam iamque man tenet (Aen. 2.530), and now, even now, he attempts to grasp him.
dnss fertur in hosts (id. 2.511), he starts to rush into the thickest of the foe.
dcern qunqugint dirum supplictins (Phil. 14.29), I move for fifty days' thanksgiving. [Cf. sentus dcrvit, the senate ordained.]
Present for Future
The Present, especially in colloquial language and poetry, is often used for the Future:
musne sessum (De Or. 3.17), shall we take a seat? (are we going to sit?)
hodi uxrem dcis (Ter. And. 321), are you to be married to-day?
quod s fit, pere funditus (id. 244), if this happens, I am utterly undone.
ecquid m adiuvs (Clu. 71), won't you give me a little help?
in is voc t. nn e. nn s (Pl. Asin. 480), I summon you to the court. I won't go. You won't?
NOTE.E and its compounds are especially frequent in this use (cf. where are you going to-morrow? and the Greek εἶμι in a future sense). Verbs of necessity, possibility, wish, and the like (as possum, vol, etc.) also have reference to the future.
For other uses of the Present in a future sense, see under Conditions ( 516. a. N.), antequam and priusquam ( 551. c), dum ( 553. N. 2), and 444. a. N.
Historical Present
The Present in lively narrative is often used for the Historical Perfect:
affertur nntius Syrcss; curritur ad praetrium; Cleomens in pblico esse nn audet; incldit s dom; (Verr. 5.92), the news is brought to Syracuse; they run to headquarters; Cleomenes does not venture to be abroad; he shuts himself up at home.
NOTE.This usage, common in all languages, comes from imagining past events as going on before our eyes (repraesentti, 585. b. N.).
For the Present Indicative with dum, while, see 556.
The present may be used for the perfect in a summary enumeration of past events (Annalistic Present):
Rma interim crscit Albae runs: duplictur cvium numerus; Caelius additur urb mns (Liv. 1.30), Rome meanwhile grows as a result of the fall of Alba: the number of citizens is doubled; the Clian hill is added to the town [p. 296]
IMPERFECT TENSE
The Imperfect denotes an action or a state as continued or repeated in past time:
hunc audibant ante; (Manil. 13), they used to hear of him before.
[Scrats] ita cnsbat itaque disseruit (Tusc. 1.72), Socrates thought so (habitually), and so he spoke (then).
prdns esse putbtur (Lael. 6), he was (generally) thought wise. [The perfect would refer to some particular case, and not to a state of things.]
iamque rubscbat Aurra (Aen. 3.521), and now the dawn was blushing.
ra vetus stbat (Ov. M. 6.326), an old altar stood there.
NOTE.The Imperfect is a descriptive tense and denotes an action conceived as in progress or a state of things as actually observed. Hence in many verbs it does not differ in meaning from the Perfect. Thus rx erat and rx fuit may often be used indifferently; but the former describes the condition while the latter only states it. The English is less exact in distinguishing these two modes of statement. Hence the Latin Imperfect is often translated by the English Preterite:
Haedu graviter ferbant, neque lgts ad Caesarem mittere audbant (B. G. 5.6), the Hdui were displeased, and did not dare to send envoys to Csar. [Here the Imperfects describe the state of things.] But,
id tulit factum graviter Indtiomrus (id. 5.4), Indutiomarus was displeased at this action. [Here the Perfect merely states the fact.]
aedificia vcsque habbant (id. 4.4), they had buildings and villages.
The Imperfect represents a present tense transferred to past time. Hence all the meanings which the Present has derived from the continuance of the action belong also to the Imperfect in reference to past time.
The Imperfect is used in descriptions:
erant omnn itinera duo ... mns altissimus impendbat (B. G. 1.6), there were in all two ways ... a very high mountain overhung.
With iam di, iam ddum, and other expressions of duration of time, the Imperfect denotes an action continuing in the past but begun at some previous time (cf. 466).
In this construction the Imperfect is rendered by the English Pluperfect:
iam ddum flbam (Ov. M. 3.656), I had been weeping for a long time.
cpis qus di comparbant (Fam. 11.13.5), the forces which they had long been getting ready.
The Imperfect sometimes denotes an action as begun (Inceptive Imperfect), or as attempted or only intended (Conative Imperfect; cf 467): [p. 297]
in exsilium ioibam quem iam ingressum esse in bellum vidbam (Cat. 2.14), was I trying to send into exile one who I saw had already gone into war?
hunc igitur diem sibi prpnns Mil, cruents manibus ad illa augusta centurirum auspicia venibat (Mil. 43), was Milo coming (i.e. was it likely that he would come), etc.?
s licitum esset venibant (Verr. 5.129), they were coming if it had been allowed (they were on the point of coming, and would have done so if, etc.).
NOTE.To this head may be referred the imperfect with iam, denoting the beginning of an action or state: as,iamque arva tenbant ultima (Aen. 6.477), and now they were just getting to the farthest fields.
The Imperfect is sometimes used to express a surprise at the resent discovery of a fact already existing:
t quoque aders (Ter. Ph. 858), oh, you are here too!
ehem, tn hc ers, m Phaedria (Ter. Eun. 86), what! you here, Phdria?
miser! quant labrbs Charybd; (Hor. Od. 1.27.19), unhappy boy, what a whirlpool you are struggling in [and I never knew it]!
The Imperfect is often used in dialogue by the comic poets where later writers would employ the Perfect:
ad amcum Calliclem quoi rem abat mandsse hc suam (Pl. Trin. 956), to his friend Callicles, to whom, he said, he had intrusted his property.
praesgbat m animus frstr m re quom exbam dom; (Pl. Aul. 178), my mind mistrusted when I went from home that I went in vain.
NOTE.So, in conversation the imperfect of verbs of saying (cf. as I was a-saying) is common in classic prose:
at medic quoque, ita enim dcbs, saepe falluntur (N. D. 3.15), but physicians also,for that is what you were saying just now,are often mistaken.
haec mihi fer in mentem venibant (id. 2.67, 168), this is about what occurred to me, etc. [In a straightforward narration this would be vnrunt.]
The Imperfect with negative words often has the force of the English auxiliary could or would:
itaque (Dmocls) nec pulchrs ilis ministrtrs aspicibat (Tusc. 5.62), therefore he could not look upon those beautiful slaves. [In this case did not would not express the idea of continued prevention of enjoyment by the overhanging sword.]
nec enim dum eram vbscum animum meum vidbtis (Cat. M. 79), for, you know, while I was with you, you could not see my soul. [Here the Perfect would refer only to one moment.]
Lentulus satis erat fortis rtr, sed cgitand nn ferbat labrem (Brut 268), Lentulus was bold enough as an orator, but could not endure the exertion of thinking hard.
For the Epistolary Imperfect, see 479; for the Imperfect Indicative in apodosis contrary to fa<*>, see 517. b. c. [p. 298]
FUTURE TENSE
The Future denotes an action or state that will occur hereafter.
The Future may have the force of an Imperative ( 449. b).
The Future is often required in a subordinate clause in Latin where in English futurity is sufficiently expressed by the main clause:
cum aderit vidbit, when he is there he will see (cf. 547).
snbimur s volmus (Tusc. 3.13), we shall be healed if we wish (cf. 516. a).
NOTE.But the Present is common in future protases ( 516. a N.).
COMPLETED ACTION: PERFECT TENSE
Perfect Definite and Historical Perfect
The Perfect denotes an action either as now completed (Perfect Definite), or as having taken place at some undefined point of past time (Historical or Aoristic Perfect).
The Perfect Definite corresponds in general to the English Perfect with have; the Historical Perfect to the English Preterite (or Past):
(1) ut ego fc, qu Graecs litters senex didic (Cat. M. 26), as I have done, who have learned Greek in my old age.
diturn silent fnem hodiernus dis attulit (Marc. 1), this day has put an end to my long-continued silence.
(2) tantum bellum extrm hieme apparvit, ineunte vre suscpit, medi aestte cnfcit (Manil. 35), so great a war he made ready for at the end of winter, undertook in early spring, and finished by midsummer.
NOTE.The distinction between these two uses is represented by two forms in most other Indo-European languages, but was almost if not wholly lost to the minds of the Romans. It must be noticed, however, on account of the marked distinction in English and also because of certain differences in the sequence of tenses.
The Indefinite Present, denoting a customary action or a general truth ( 465), often has the Perfect in a subordinate clause referring to time antecedent to that of the main clause:
qu in compedibus corporis semper furunt, etiam cum solt sunt tardius ingrediuntur (Tusc. 1.75), they who have always been in the fetters of the body, even when released move more slowly.
simul ac mihi collibitum est, praest est img; (N. D. 1.108), as soon as I have taken a fancy, the image is before my eyes. [p. 299]
haec morte effugiuntur, etiam s nn vnrunt, tamen quia possunt venre (Tusc. 1.86), these things are escaped by death even if they have not [yet] happened, because they still may happen.
NOTE.This use of the perfect is especially common in the protasis of General Conditions in present time ( 518. b).
The Perfect is sometimes used emphatically to denote that a thing or condition of things that once existed no longer exists:
fuit ista quondam in hc r pblic virts (Cat. 1.3), there was once such virtue in this commonwealth.
habuit, nn habet (Tusc. 1.87), he had, he has no longer.
flium habe ... immo habu; nunc habeam necne incertumst (Ter. Haut. 93), I have a son, no, I had one; whether I have now or not is uncertain.
fuimus Tres, fuit lium (Aen. 2.325), we have ceased to be Trojans, Troy is no more.
Special Uses of the Perfect
The Perfect is sometimes used of a general truth, especially with negatives (Gnomic Perfect):
qu studet contingere mtam multa tulit fcitque (Hor. A. P. 412), he who aims to reach the goal, first bears and does many things.
nn aeris acervus et aur ddxit corpore febrs (id. Ep. 1.2.47), the pile of brass and gold removes not fever from the frame.
NOTE.The gnomic perfect strictly refers to past time; but its use implies that something which never did happen in any known case never does happen, and never will (cf. the English Faint heart never won fair lady); or, without a negative that what has once happened will always happen under similar circumstances.
The Perfect is often used in expressions containing or implying a negation, where in affirmation the Imperfect would be preferred:
dcbat melius quam scrpsit Hortnsius (Or. 132), Hortensius spoke better than he wrote. [Here the negative is implied in the comparison: compare the use of quisquam, llus, etc. ( 311, 312), and the French ne after comparatives and superlatives.]
The completed tenses of some verbs are equivalent to the incomplete tenses of verbs of kindred meaning.
Such are the preteritive verbs d, I hate; memin, I remember; nv, I know; cnsuv, I am accustomed,
212 with others used preteritively, as vnerat (=aderat, he was at hand, etc.), cnstitrunt, they stand firm (have taken their stand), and many inceptives (see 263. 1): [p. 300]
qu dis aests maxims efficere cnsuvit (B. G. 4.29), which day generally makes the highest tides (is accustomed to make).
cius splendor obsolvit (Quinct. 59), whose splendor is now all faded.
NOTE.Many other verbs are occasionally so used: as,dum oculs certmen verterat (Liv. 32.24), while the contest had turned their eyes (kept them turned). [Here verterat=tenbat.]
PLUPERFECT TENSE
The Pluperfect is used (1) to denote an action or state completed in past time; or (2) sometimes to denote an action in indefinite time, but prior to some past time referred to:
(1) loc ntra erat haec, quem locum nostr castrs dlgerant (B. G. 2.18), this was the nature of the ground which our men had chosen for a camp.
Viridovx summam imper tenbat erum omnium cvittum quae dfcerant (id. 3.17), Viridovix held the chief command of all those tribes which had revolted.
(2) neque vr cum aliquid mandverat cnfectum putbat (Cat. 3.16), but when he had given a thing in charge he did not look on it as done.
quae s quand adepta est id quod e fuerat concuptum, tum fert alacrittem (Tusc. 4.15), if it (desire) ever has gained what it had [previously] desired, then it produces joy.
For the Epistolary Pluperfect, see 479.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
The Future Perfect denotes an action as completed in the future:
ut smentem fceris, ita mets (De Or. 2.261), as you sow (shall have sown), so shall you reap.
carmina tum melius, cum vnerit ipse, canmus (Ecl. 9.67), then shall we sing our songs better, when he himself has come (shall have come).
s illus nsidiae clrirs hc lce fuerint, tum dnique obsecrb; (Mil. 6), when the plots of that man have been shown to be as clear as daylight, then, and not till then, shall I conjure you.
ego cert meum officium praestiter (B. G. 4.25), I at least shall have done my duty (i.e. when the time comes to reckon up the matter, I shall be found to have done it, whatever the event).
NOTE.Latin is far more exact than English in distinguishing between mere future action and action completed in the future. Hence the Future Perfect is much commoner in Latin than in English. It may even be used instead of the Future, from the fondness of the Romans for representing an action as completed:
quid inventum sit paul post vder (Acad. 2.76), what has been found out I shall see presently.
qu Antnium oppresserit bellum taeterrimum cnfcerit (Fam. 10.19), whoever crushes (shall have crushed) Antony will finish (will have finished) a most loathsome war. [p. 301]
EPISTOLARY TENSES
In Letters, the Perfect Historical or the Imperfect may be used for the present, and the Pluperfect for any past tense, as if the letter were dated at the time it is supposed to be received:
neque tamen, haec cum scrbbam, eram nescius quants oneribus premerre (Fam. 5.12.2), nor while I write this am I ignorant under what burdens you are weighed down.
ad tus omns [epistuls] rescrpseram prdi; (Att. 9.10.1), I answered all your letters yesterday.
cum quod scrberem ad t nihil habrem, tamen hs ded litters (Att. 9.16), though I have nothing to write to you, still I write this letter.
NOTE.In this use these tenses are called the Epistolary Perfect, Imperfect, and Pluperfect. The epistolary tenses are not employed with any uniformity, but only when attention is particularly directed to the time of writing (so especially scrbbam, dabam, etc.).
TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE
The tenses of the Subjunctive in Independent Clauses denote time in relation to the time of the speaker.
The Present always refers to future (or indefinite) time, the Imperfect to either past or present, the Perfect to either future or past, the Pluperfect always to past.
The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses were habitually used in certain fixed connections with the tenses of the main verb.
These connections were determined by the time of the main verb and the time of the dependent verb together. They are known, collectively, as the Sequence of Tenses.
NOTE.The so-called Sequence of Tenses is not a mechanical law. Each tense of the subjunctive in dependent clauses (as in independent) originally denoted its own time in relation to the time of the speaker, though less definitely than the corresponding tenses of the indicative. Gradually, however, as the complex sentence was more strongly felt as a unit, certain types in which the tenses of the dependent clause seemed to accord with those of the main clause were almost unconsciously regarded as regular, and others, in which there was no such agreement, as exceptional. Thus a pretty definite system of correspondences grew up, which is codified in the rules for the Sequence of Tenses. These, however, are by no means rigid. They do not apply with equal stringency to all dependent constructions, and they were frequently disregarded, not only when their strict observance would have obscured the sense, but for the sake of emphasis and variety, or merely from carelessness. [p. 302]
Sequence of Tenses
The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses follow special rules for the Sequence of Tenses.
With reference to these rules all tenses when used in independent clauses are divided into two classes,Primary and Secondary.
1. PRIMARY.The Primary Tenses include all forms that express present or future time. These are the Present, Future, and Future Perfect Indicative, the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, and the Present and Future Imperative.
2. SECONDARY.The Secondary Tenses include all forms that refer to past time. These are the Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect Indicative, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, and the Historical Infinitive.
NOTE.To these may be added certain forms less commonly used in independent clauses:(1) Primary: Present Infinitive in Exclamations; (2) Secondary: Perfect Infinitive in Exclamations (see 462, 485. a N.).
The Perfect Definite is sometimes treated as primary (see 485. a).
For the Historical Present, see 485. e; for the Imperfect Subjunctive in Apodosis, see 485. h.
The following is the general rule for the Sequence of Tenses:
213
In complex sentences a Primary tense in the main clause is followed by the Present or Perfect in the dependent clause, and a Secondary tense by the Imperfect or Pluperfect:
PRIMARY TENSES
|
rog, |
I ask, am asking
|
quid facis, what you are doing.
|
|
rogb, |
I shall ask |
quid fceris, what you did, were doing, have done, have been doing.
|
|
rogv (sometimes), |
I have asked |
|
rogver, |
I shall have asked |
quid factrus ss, what you will do.
|
|
scrbit, |
he writes |
ut ns moneat, to warn us.
|
|
scrbet, |
he will write |
|
scrbe (scrbit), |
write |
ut ns mones, to warn us.
|
|
scrbit, |
he writes |
quasi obltus sit, as if he had forgotten.
|
[p. 303]
SECONDARY TENSES
|
rogbam, |
I asked, was asking
|
quid facers, what you were doing.
|
|
rogv, |
I asked, have asked
|
quid fcisss, what you had done, had been doing.
|
|
rogveram, |
I had asked |
quid factrus esss, what you would do.
|
|
scrpsit, |
he wrote |
ut ns monret, to warn us.
|
|
scrpsit, |
he wrote |
quasi obltus esset, as if he had forgotten.
|
In applying the rule for the Sequence of Tenses, observe
(1) Whether the main verb is (a) primary or (b) secondary.
(2) Whether the dependent verb is to denote completed action (i.e. past with reference to the main verb) or incomplete action (i.e. present or future with reference to the main verb). Then
If the leading verb is primary, the dependent verb must be in the Present if it denotes incomplete action, in the Perfect if it denotes completed action.
If the leading verb is secondary, the dependent verb must be in the Imperfect if it denotes incomplete action, in the Pluperfect if it denotes completed action:
(1) He writes [primary] to warn [incomplete action] us, scrbit ut ns moneat.
I ask [primary] what you were doing [now past], rog quid fceris.
(2) He wrote [secondary] to warn [incomplete] us, scrpsit ut ns monret.
I asked [secondary] what you were doing [incomplete], rogv quid facers.
Notice that the Future Perfect denotes action completed (at the time referred to), and hence is represented in the Subjunctive by the Perfect or Pluperfect:
He shows that if they come (shall have come), many will perish, dmnstrat, s vnerint, mults interitrs.
He showed that if they should come (should have come), many would perish, dmnstrvit, s vnissent, mults interitrs.
In the Sequence of Tenses the following special points are to be noted:
The Perfect Indicative is ordinarily a secondary tense, but allows the primary sequence when the present time is clearly in the writer's mind:
ut satis esset praesid prvsum est (Cat. 2.26), provision has been made that there should be ample guard. [Secondary sequence.]
addx hominem in qu satisfacere exters ntinibus posstis (Verr. 1.2), I have brought a man in whose person you can make satisfaction to foreign nations. [Secondary sequence.] [p. 304]
est enim rs iam in eum locum adducta, ut quamquam multum intersit inter erum causs qu dmicant, tamen inter victris nn multum interfutrum putem (Fam. 5.21.3), for affairs have been brought to such a pass that, though there is a great difference between the causes of those who are fighting, still I do not think there will be much difference between their victories. [Primary sequence.]
ea adhibita doctrna est quae vel vitisissimam ntram excolere possit (Q. Fr. 1.1.7), such instruction has been given as can train even the faultiest nature. [Primary sequence.]
NOTE.The Perfect Infinitive in exclamations follows the same rule:
quemquamne fuisse tam scelertum qu hc fingeret (Phil. 14.14), was any one so abandoned as to imagine this? [Secondary.]
aden rem redsse patrem ut extimscam (Ter. Ph. 153), to think that things have come to such a pass that I should dread my father! [Primary.]
After a primary tense the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly used to denote any past action. This the Perfect Subjunctive may represent
1. A Perfect Definite:
nn dubit qun omns tu scrpserint (Fam. 5.8), I do not doubt that all your friends have written. [Direct statement: scrpsrunt.]
qu r nn gnr quid accidat in ultims terrs, cum audierim in tali querells cvium (Q. Fr. 1.1.33), therefore I know well what happens at the ends of the earth, when I have heard in Italy the complaints of citizens. [Direct statement: audv.]
2. A Perfect Historical:
m autem hc laudat quod rettulerim, nn quod patefcerim (Att. 12.21), me he praises because I brought the matter [before the senate], not because I brought it to light. [Direct statement: rettulit.]
3. An Imperfect:
s forte cecidrunt, tum intellegitur quam fuerint inops amcrum (Lael. 53), if perchance they fall (have fallen), then one can see how poor they were in friends. [Direct question: quam inops erant?]
qu status rrum fuerit cum hs litters ded, scre poteris ex C. Titi Strabne (Fam. 12.6), what the condition of affairs was when I wrote this letter, you can learn from Strabo. [Direct question: qu status erat?]
quam cvitt crus fuerit maerre fneris indictum est (Lael. 11), how dear he was to the state has been shown by the grief at his funeral. [Direct question: quam crus erat?]
ex epistuls intelleg licet quam frequns fuerit Platnis audtor (Or. 15), it may be understood from his letters how constant a hearer he was of Plato. [Direct question: quam frequns erat?]
NOTE.Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may represent, not only a Perfect Definite or a Perfect Historical of a direct statement or question, but an Imperfect as well. This comes from the want of any special tense of the subjunctive for continued past action after a primary tense. Thus, mror quid fcerit may mean (1) I wonder what he has done, (2) I wonder what he did (hist. perf.), or (3) I wonder what he was doing. [p. 305]
In clauses of Result, the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly (the Present rarely) used after secondary tenses:
Hortnsius rdbat dcend cupiditte sc ut in nll umquam flagrantius studium vderim (Brut. 302), Hortensius was so hot with desire of speaking that I have never seen a more burning ardor in any man.
[Siciliam Verrs] per triennium ita vexvit ac perdidit ut ea restitu in antquum statum nll mod possit (Verr. 1.12), for three years Verres so racked and ruined Sicily that she can in no way be restored to her former state. [Here the Present describes a state of things actually existing.]
videor esse cnsectus ut nn possit Dolbella in taliam pervenre (Fam. 12.14.2), I seem to have brought it about that Dolabella cannot come into Italy.
NOTE 1.This construction emphasizes the result; the regular sequence of tenses would subordinate it.
NOTE 2.There is a special fondness for the Perfect Subjunctive to represent a Perfect Indicative:
Thorius erat ita nn superstitisus ut illa plrima in su et sacrificia et fna contemneret; ita nn timidus ad mortem ut in aci sit ob rem pblicam interfectus (Fin. 2.63), Thorius was so little superstitious that he despised [contemnbat] the many sacrifices and shrines in his country; so little timorous about death that he was killed [interfectus est] in battle, in defence of the state.
A general truth after a past tense follows the sequence of tenses:
ex hs quae tribuisset, sibi quam mtbilis esset reputbat (Q. C. 3.8.20), from what she (Fortune) had bestowed on him, he reflected how inconstant she is. [Direct: mtbilis est.]
ibi quantam vim ad stimulands anims ra habret appruit (Liv. 33.37), here it appeared what power anger has to goad the mind. [Direct: habet.]
NOTE.In English the original tense is more commonly kept.
The Historical Present ( 469) is sometimes felt as a primary, ometimes as a secondary tense, and accordingly it takes either the primary or the secondary sequence:
rogat ut cret quod dxisset (Quinct. 18), he asks him to attend to the thing he had spoken of. [Both primary and secondary sequence.]
NOTE.After the historical present, the subjunctive with cum temporal must follow the secondary sequence:
qu cum vnisset cgnscit (B. C. 1.34), when he had come there he learns.
cum esset pgntum hrs qunque, nostrque gravius premerentur, impetum in cohorts faciunt (id. 1.46), when they had fought for five hours, and our men were pretty hard pressed, they make an attack on the cohorts.
The Historical Infinitive regularly takes the secondary sequence:
interim cotdi Caesar Haedus frmentum, quod essent pollicit, flgitre (B. G. 1.16). meanwhile Csar demanded of the Hdui every day the grain which they had promised. [p. 306]
The Imperfect and Pluperfect in conditions contrary to fact ( 517) and in the Deliberative Subjunctive ( 444) are not affected by the sequence of tenses:
quia tle sit, ut vel s gnrrent id homins vel s obmutuissent (Fin. 2.49), because it is such that even if men WERE ignorant of it, or HAD BEEN silent about it.
quaer t cr C. Cornlium nn dfenderem (Vat. 5), I ask you why I was not to defend Caius Cornelius? [Direct: cr nn dfenderem?]
The Imperfect Subjunctive in present conditions contrary to fact ( 517) is regularly followed by the secondary sequence:
s ali cnsuls essent, ad t potissimum, Paule, mitterem, ut es mihi quam amcissims redders (Fam. 15.13.3), if there were other consuls, I should send to you, Paulus, in preference to all, that you might make them as friendly to me as possible.
s sls es dcers misers quibus moriendum esset, nminem excipers (Tusc. 1.9), if you were to call only those wretched who must d<*> you would except no one.
The Present is sometimes followed by a secondary sequence, seemingly because the writer is thinking of past time:
sed s rs cget, est quiddam tertium, quod neque Selici nec mihi displic bat: ut neque iacre rem patermur, etc. (Fam. 1.5A. 3), but if the case shall demand, there is a third [course] which neither Selicius nor myself disapproved, that we should not allow, etc. [Here Cicero is led by the time of displicbat.]
sed tamen ut scrs, haec tibi scrb (Fam. 13.47), but yet that you may know, I write thus. [As if he had used the epistolary imperfect scrbbam ( 479).]
cius praecept tanta vs est ut ea nn homin cuipiam sed Delphic de tribuertur (Legg. 1.58), such is the force of this precept, that it was ascribed not to any man, but to the Delphic god. [The precept was an old one.]
When a clause depends upon one already dependent, its sequence may be secondary if the verb of that clause expresses past time, even if the main verb is in a primary tense:
sed tamen qu r acciderit ut ex mes superiribus litters id suspicrre nesci; (Fam. 2.16), but yet how it happened that you suspected this from my previous letter, I don't know.
tantum prfcisse vidmur ut Graecs n verbrum quidem cpi vincermur (N. D. 1.8), we seem to have advanced so far that even in abundance of words we ARE not surpassed by the Greeks.
NOTE.So regularly after a Perfect Infinitive which depends on a primary tens<*> ( 585. a). [p. 307]
TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE
Except in Indirect Discourse, only the Present and Perfect Infinitives are used.
The Present represents the action of the verb as in progress without distinct reference to time, the Perfect as completed.
For the Tenses of the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse see 584.
With past tenses of verbs of necessity, propriety, and possibility (as dbu, oportuit, potu), the Present Infinitive is often used in Latin where the English idiom prefers the Perfect Infinitive:
numne, s Coriolnus habuit amcs, ferre contr patriam arma ill cum Corioln dburunt (Lael. 36), if Coriolanus had friends, ought they to have borne arms with him against their fatherland?
pecnia, quam hs oportuit cvittibus pr frment dar (Verr. 3.174), money which ought to have been paid to these states for grain.
cnsul esse qu potu, nisi eum vtae cursum tenuissem pueriti; (Rep. 1.10), how could I have become consul had I not from boyhood followed that course of life?
With verbs of necessity, propriety, and possibility, the Perfect Infinitive may be used to emphasize the idea of completed action:
tamets statim vcisse dbe; (Rosc. Am. 73), although I ought to win my case at once (to be regarded as having won it).
bellum quod possumus ante hiemem perfcisse (Liv. 37.19.5), a war which we can have completed before winter.
nl ego, s peccem, possum nescsse (Ov. H. 16.47), if I should go wrong, I cannot have done it in ignorance (am not able not to have known).
NOTE.With the past tenses of these verbs the perfect infinitive is apparently due to attraction:
quod iam prdem factum esse oportuit (Cat. 1.5), (a thing) which ought to have been done long ago.
haec facta ab ill oportbat (Ter. Haut. 536), this ought to have been done by him.
tum decuit metuisse (Aen. 10.94), then was the time to fear (then you should have feared).
In archaic Latin and in legal formulas the Perfect Active Infinitive is often used with nl or vol in prohibitions:
Chaldaeum nquem cnsuluisse velit (Cato R. R. 5.4), let him not venture to have consulted a soothsayer.
nlt dvellisse (Pl. Poen. 872), do not have them plucked.
nquis humsse velit icem (Hor. S. 2.3.187), let no one venture to have buried Ajax.
NEIQVIS EORVM BACANAL HABVISE VELET (S. C. de Bac. 1), let no one of them venture to have had a place for Bacchanalian worship. [p. 308]
With verbs of wishing
214 the Perfect Passive Infinitive (commonly without esse) is often used emphatically instead of the Present:
domestic cr t levtum vol; (Q. Fr. 3.9.3), I wish you relieved of private care.
ills monits vol; (Cat. 2.27), I wish them thoroughly warned.
qu illam [patriam] exstnctam cupit (Fin. 4.66), who is eager for her utter destruction.
illud t esse admonitum vol; (Cael. 8), I wish you to be well advised of this.
qu s ab omnibus dserts potius quam abs t dfnss esse mlunt (Caecil. 21), who prefer to be deserted by all rather than to be defended by you.
NOTE.The participle in this case is rather in predicate agreement (with or without esse) than used to form a strict perfect infinitive, though the full form can hardly be distinguished from that construction.
In late Latin, and in poetry (often for metrical convenience), rarely in good prose, the Perfect Active Infinitive is used emphatically instead of the Present, and even after other verbs than those of wishing:
nm erum est qu nn persse t cupiat (Verr. 2.149), there is no one of them who is not eager for your death.
haud equidem premend alium m extulisse velim (Liv. 22.59.10), I would not by crushing another exalt myself.
sunt qu nlint tetigisse (Hor. S. 1.2.28), there are those who would not touch.
commsisse cavet (Hor. A. P. 168), he is cautious of doing.
nunc quem tetigisse timrent, anguis ers (Ov. M. 8.733), again you became a serpent which they dreaded to touch.
frtrsque tendents opc Plion imposuisse Olymp; (Hor. Od. 3.4.51), and the brothers striving to set Pelion on dark Olympus.
After verbs of feeling the Perfect Infinitive is used, especially by the poets, to denote a completed action.
So also with satis est, satis habe, melius est, contentus sum, and in a few other cases where the distinction of time is important:
nn paenitbat intercapdinem scrbend fcisse (Fam. 16.21), I was not sorry to have made a respite of writing.
pudet m nn praestitisse (id. 14.3), I am ashamed not to have shown.
sunt qus pulverem Olympicum collgisse iuvat (Hor. Od. 1.1.3), some delight to have stirred up the dust at Olympia.
quisse erit melius (Liv. 3.48), it will be better to have kept quiet.
ac s quis amet scrpsisse (Hor. S. 1.10.60), than if one should choose to have written.
id slum dxisse satis habe; (Vell. 2.124), I am content to have said only this. [p. 309]
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB
The several Noun and Adjective forms associated with the verb are employed as follows:
215
|
I. Participles: |
a. Present and Perfect: |
1. Attributive ( 494). |
|
|
2. Simple Predicate ( 495). |
|
|
3. Periphrastic Perfect (passive) ( 495. N.). |
|
|
4. Predicate of Circumstance ( 496). |
|
|
5. Descriptive (Indirect Discourse) ( 497 d). |
|
b. Future |
1. Periphrastic with esse ( 498. a). |
|
|
2. Periphrastic with fu (=Pluperfect Subjunctive) ( 498. b). |
|
c. Gerundive |
1. As Descriptive Adjective ( 500. 1). |
|
|
2. Periphrastic with esse ( 500. 2). |
|
|
3. Of Purpose with certain verbs ( 500. 4). |
|
II. Gerund or Gerundive: |
1. Genitive as Subjective or Objective Genitive ( 504). |
|
2. Dative, with Adjectives (of Fitness), Nouns, Verbs ( 505). |
|
3. Accusative, with certain Prepositions ( 506). |
|
4. Ablative, of Means, Comparison, or with Prepositions ( 507). |
|
III. Supine: |
1. Accusative Supine (in -um), with Verbs of Motion ( 509). |
|
2. Ablative Supine (in -), chiefly with Adjectives ( 510). |
PARTICIPLES
The Participle expresses the action of the verb in the form of an Adjective, but has a partial distinction of tense and may govern a case.
NOTE.Thus the participle combines all the functions of an adjective with some of the functions of a verb. As an Adjective, it limits substantives and agrees with them in gender, number, and case ( 286). As a Verb, it has distinctions of time ( 489) and often takes an object.
Distinctions of Tense in Participles
Participles denote time as present, past, or future with respect to the time of the verb in their clause.
Thus the Present Participle represents the action as in progress at the time indicated by the tense of the verb, the Perfect as completed, and the Future as still to take place.
The Present Participle has several of the special uses of the Present Indicative. Thus it may denote
1. An action continued in the present but begun in the past ( 466):
quaerent mihi iam di certa rs nlla venibat in mentem (Fam. 4.13). though I had long sought, no certain thing came to my mind. [p. 310]
2. Attempted action ( 467):
C. Flmini restitit agrum Pcentem dvident (Cat. M. 11), he resisted Flaminius when attempting to divide the Picene territory.
3. Rarely (in poetry and later Latin) futurity or purpose, with a verb of motion:
Eurypylum sctantem rcula mittimus (Aen. 2.114), we send Eurypylus to consult the oracle. [Cf. 468.]
The Perfect Participle of a few deponent verbs is used nearly in the sense of a Present.
Such are, regularly, ratus, solitus, veritus; commonly, arbitrtus, fsus, ausus, sectus, and occasionally others, especially in later writers:
rem incrdibilem rat (Sall. Cat. 48), thinking the thing incredible.
nsidis veritus (B. G. 2.11), fearing an ambuscade.
cohorttus mlits docuit (B. C. 3.80), encouraging the men, he showed.
rtus dxist; (Mur. 62), you spoke in a passion.
ad pgnam congress (Liv. 4.10), meeting in fight.
The Latin has no Present Participle in the passive.
The place of such a form is supplied usually by a clause with dum or cum:
obire dum calciantur mttn duo Caesars (Plin. N. H. 7.181), two Csars died while having their shoes put on in the morning.
mque ista dlectant cum Latn dcuntur (Acad. 1.18), those things please me when they are spoken in Latin.
NOTE.These constructions are often used when a participle might be employed:
dc, hospes, Spartae ns t hc vdisse iacents, dum sncts patriae lgibus obsequimur (Tusc. 1.101), tell it, stranger, at Sparta, that you saw us lying here obedient to our country's sacred laws. [Here dum obsequimur is a translation of the Greek present participle πειθόμενοι.]
dum [Ulixs] sibi, dum socis reditum parat (Hor. Ep. 1.2.21), Ulysses, while securing the return of himself and his companions. [In Greek: ἀρνύμενος.]
The Latin has no Perfect Participle in the active voice. The deficiency is supplied
1. In deponents by the perfect passive form with its regular active meaning:
nam singuls [nvs] nostr cnsectt expgnvrunt (B. G. 3.15), for our men, having overtaken them one by one, captured them by boarding.
NOTE.The perfect participle of several deponent verbs may be either active or passive in meaning ( 190. b). [p. 311]
2. In other verbs, either by the perfect passive participle in the ablative absolute ( 420. N.) or by a temporal clause (especially with cum or postquam):
itaque convocts centurinibus mlits certirs facit (B. G. 3.5), and so, having called the centurions together, he informs the soldiers (the centurions having been called together).
cum vnisset animadvertit collem (id. 7.44), having come (when he had come), he noticed a hill.
postquam id animum advertit cpis sus Caesar in proximum collem subdcit (B. G. 1.24), having observed this (after he had observed this) Csar led his troops to the nearest hill.
Uses of Participles
The Present and Perfect Participles are sometimes used as attributives, nearly like adjectives:
aeger et flagrns animus (Tac. Ann. 3.54), his sick and passionate mind.
cum antquissimam sententiam tum comprobtam (Div. 1.11), a view at once most ancient and well approved.
sgna numquam fer mentientia (id. 1.15), signs hardly ever deceitful.
auspicis tuntur cocts (id. 1.27), they use forced auspices.
Participles often become complete adjectives, and may be compared, or used as nouns:
qu mulier esset rs cautior (Caec. 11), that the matter might be more secure for the woman.
in ills artibus praestantissimus (De Or. 1.217), preminent in those arts.
sibi indulgents et corpor dservients (Legg. 1.39), the self-indulgent, and slaves to the body (indulging themselves and serving the body).
rct facta paria esse dbent (Par. 22), right deeds (things rightly done) ought to be like in value (see 321. b).
male parta male dlbuntur (Phil. 2.65), ill got, ill spent (things ill acquired are ill spent).
cnsutd valentis (De Or. 2.186), the habit of a man in health.
Participles are often used as Predicate Adjectives. As such they may be joined to the subject by esse or a copulative verb (see 283):
Gallia est dvsa (B. G. 1.1), Gaul is divided.
locus qu nunc saeptus est (Liv. 1.8), the place which is now enclosed.
vidtis ut senects sit opersa et semper agns aliquid et mlins (Cat. M. 26), you see how busy old age is, always aiming and trying at something.
nm adhc convenre m voluit cui fuerim occuptus (id. 32), nobody hitherto has [ever] wished to converse with me, to whom I have been engaged. [p. 312]
NOTE.From this predicate use arise the compound tenses of the passive,the participle of completed action with the incomplete tenses of esse developing the idea of past time: as, interfectus est, he was (or has been) killed, lit. he is having-been-killed (i.e. already slain).
The perfect participle used with fu etc. was perhaps originally an intensified expression in the popular language for the perfect, pluperfect, etc.
At times these forms indicate a state of affairs no longer existing:
ctem quoque edem loc sitam fuisse memorant (Liv. 1.36.5), they say that a whetstone was (once) deposited in this same place. [At the time of writing it was no longer there.]
arma quae fxa in parietibus fuerant, hum inventa sunt (Div. 1.74), the arms which had been fastened on the walls were found upon the ground.
But more frequently they are not to be distinguished from the forms with sum etc.
The construction is found occasionally at all periods, but is most common in Livy and later writers.
The Present and Perfect Participles are often used as a predicate, where in English a phrase or a subordinate clause would be more natural.
In this use the participles express time, cause, occasion, condition, concession, characteristic (or description), manner, means, attendant circumstances:
volvents hostlia cadvera amcum reperibant (Sall. Cat. 61), while rolling over the corpses of the enemy they found a friend. [Time.]
paululum commortus, sgna canere iubet (id. 59), after delaying a little while, he orders them to give the signal. [Time.]
longius prsequ veritus, ad Cicernem pervnit (B. G. 5.52), because he feared to follow further, he came to Cicero. [Cause.]
qu scret laxs dare iussus habns (Aen. 1.63), who might know how to give them loose rein when bidden. [Occasion.]
damntum poenam sequ oportbat (B. G. 1.4), if condemned, punishment must overtake him. [Condition.]
saltem nsprantibus reddidist; (Marc. 21), you have restored a safety for which we did not hope (to [us] not hoping). [Concession.]
Dardanius caput ecce puer dtctus (Aen. 10.133), the Trojan boy with his head uncovered. [Description.]
nec trepids in sum poscentis aev pauca (Hor. Od. 2.11.5), be not anxious for the needs of age that demands little. [Characteristic.]
incitt fug monts altissims petbant (B. C. 3.93), in headlong flight they made for the highest mountains. [Manner.]
mlits sublevt ali ab alis mgnam partem itineris cnficerent (id. 1.68), the soldiers, helped up by each other, accomplished a considerable part of the route. [Means.]
hc laudns, Pompius idem irvit (id. 3.87), approving this, Pompey took the same oath. [Attendant Circumstance.]
aut sedns aut ambulns disputbam (Tusc. 1.7), I conducted the discussion either sitting or walking. [Attendant Circumstance.] [p. 313]
NOTE 1.These uses are especially frequent in the Ablative Absolute ( 420).
NOTE 2.A cordinate clause is sometimes compressed into a perfect participle:
nstrcts rdins in locum aequum ddcit (Sall. Cat. 59), he draws up the lines, and leads them to level ground.
ut hs trducts necret (B. G. 5.6), that he might carry them over and put them to death.
NOTE 3.A participle with a negative often expresses the same idea which in English is given by without and a verbal noun: as,miserum est nihil prficientem ang (N. D. 3.14), it is wretched to vex oneself without effecting anything.
NOTE 4.Acceptum and expnsum as predicates with ferre and referre are bookkeeping terms: as,qus pecnis ferbat es expnss (Verr. 2.170), what sums he charged to them.
A noun and a passive participle are often so united that the participle and not the noun contains the main idea:
216
ante conditam condendamve urbem (Liv. Pref.), before the city was built or building.
ill lberttem immintam cvium Rmnrum nn tulrunt; vs reptam vtam neglegtis (Manil. 11), they did not endure the infringement of the citizens' liberty; will you disregard the destruction of their lives?
post nts homins (Brut. 224), since the creation of man.
iam condit urbe (Phil. 3.9), even from the founding of the city.
The perfect participle with a noun in agreement, or in the neuter as an abstract noun, is used in the ablative with opus, need (cf. 411. a):
opus fact est vitic (Pl. Trin. 887), there is need of laying in provision.
mtrt opus est (Liv. 8.13.17), there is need of haste.
The perfect participle with habe (rarely with other verbs) has almost the same meaning as a perfect active, but denotes the continued effect of the action of the verb:
217
fidem quam habent specttam iam et di cgnitam (Caecil. 11), my fidelity, which they have proved and long known.
cohorts in aci LXXX cnstitts habbat (B. C. 3.89), he had eighty cohorts stationed in line of battle.
nefris ducs capts iam et comprehnss tentis (Cat. 3.16), you have now captured the infamous leaders and hold them in custody.
A verb of effecting or the like may be used in combination with the perfect participle of a transitive verb to express the action of that verb more forcibly: [p. 314]
praefects sus mult misss fcrunt (Verr. 3.134), many discharged their officers (made dismissed).
hc trnsctum reddet omne (Pl. Capt. 345), he will get it all done (restore it finished).
admptum tibi iam fax omnem metum (Ter. Haut. 341), I will relieve you of all fear (make it taken away).
illam tibi incnsam dab (Ter. Ph. 974), I will make her angry with you.
NOTE.Similarly vol (with its compounds) and cupi, with a perfect participle without esse (cf. 486. d).
After verbs denoting an action of the senses the present participle in agreement with the object is nearly equivalent to the infinitive of indirect discourse ( 580), but expresses the action more vividly:
ut eum nm umquam in equ sedentem vderit (Verr. 5.27), so that no one ever saw him sitting on a horse. [Cf. Tusc. 3.31.]
NOTE.The same construction is used after faci, indc, and the like, with the name of an author as subject: as,Xenophn facit Scratem disputantem (N. D. 1.31), Xenophon represents Socrates disputing.
Future Participle (Active)
The Future Participle (except futrus and ventrus) is rarely used in simple agreement with a noun, except by poets and later writers.
The future participle is chiefly used with the forms of esse (often omitted in the infinitive) in the Active Periphrastic Conjugation (see 195):
morere, Diagor, nn enim in caelum adscnsrus es (Tusc. 1.111), die, Diagoras, for you are not likely to rise to heaven.
sprat adulscns di s vctrum (Cat. M. 68), the young man hopes to live long (that he shall live long).
neque pettrus umquam cnsultum vidrtur (Off. 3.79), and did not seem likely ever to be a candidate for the consulship.
With the past tenses of esse in the indicative, the future participle is often equivalent to the pluperfect subjunctive ( 517. d). For futrum fuisse, see 589. b.
By later writers and the poets the Future Participle is often used in simple agreement with a substantive to express
1. Likelihood or certainty:
rem ausus pls fmae habitram (Liv. 2.10), having dared a thing which would have more repute. [p. 315]
2. Purpose, intention, or readiness:
greditur castrs Rmnus vllum invsrus (Liv. 3.60.8), the Roman comes out of the camp with the intention of attacking the rampart.
disperss per agrs mlits equitibus invsrs (id. 31.36), while the horse were ready to attack the soldiers scattered through the fields.
s peritrus abs (Aen. 2.675), if you are going away to perish.
3. Apodosis:
dedit mihi quantum maximum potuit, datrus amplius s potuisset (Plin. Ep. 3.21.6), he gave me as much as he could, ready to give me more if he had been able. [Here datrus is equivalent to dedisset.]
Gerundive (Future Passive Participle)
NOTE.The participle in -dus, commonly called the Gerundive, has two distinct uses:
(1) Its predicate and attribute use as Participle or Adjective ( 500).
(2) Its use with the meaning of the Gerund ( 503). This may be called its gerundive use.
The Gerundive when used as a Participle or an Adjective is always passive, denoting necessity, obligation, or propriety.
In this use of the Gerundive the following points are to be observed:
1. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and perfect participles, in simple agreement with a noun:
fortem et cnservandum virum (Mil. 104), a brave man, and worthy to be preserved.
gravis iniria facta est et nn ferenda (Flacc. 84), a grave and intolerable wrong has been done.
2. The most frequent use of the gerundive is with the forms of esse in the Second (or passive) Periphrastic Conjugation (see 196):
nn agitanda rs erit (Verr. 5.179), will not the thing have to be agitated?
3. The neuter gerundive of both transitive and intransitive verbs may be used impersonally in the second periphrastic conjugation.
With verbs that take the dative or ablative, an object may be expressed in the appropriate case; with transitive verbs, an object in the accusative is sometimes found:
tempor serviendum est (Fam. 9.7.2), one must obey the time.
lgibus prendum est, the laws must be obeyed.
tendum exercittinibus modics (Cat. M. 36), we must use moderate exercis<*>
agitandumst vigilis (Pl. Trin. 869), I have got to stand guard.
via quam nbs ingrediendum sit (Cat. M. 6), the way we have to enter. [p. 316]
4. After verbs signifying to give, deliver, agree for, have, receive, undertake, demand,
218 a gerundive in agreement with the object is used to express purpose:
redmptor qu columnam illam condxerat faciendam (Div. 2.47), the contractor who had undertaken to make that column. [The regular construction with this class of verbs.]
aedem Castoris habuit tuendam (Verr. 2.1.150), he had the temple of Castor to take care of.
nvs atque onera adservanda crbat (id. 5.146), he took care that the ships and cargoes should be kept.
GERUND
The Gerund is the neuter of the Gerundive, used substantively in the Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative.
The Gerund expresses an action of the verb in the form of a verbal noun.
As a noun the gerund is itself governed by other words; as a verb it may take an object in the proper case:
ars bene disserend et vra ac falsa didicand (De Or. 2.157), the art of discoursing well, and distinguishing the true and the false.
NOTE.The Nominative of the gerund is supplied by the Infinitive. Thus in the example above, the verbal nouns discoursing and distinguishing, if used in the nominative, would be expressed by the infinitives disserere and didicre.
The Gerund is the neuter of the gerundive used impersonally, but retaining the verbal idea sufficiently to govern an object. It may therefore be regarded as a noun (cf. mtrt opus est, 497. a) with a verbal force (cf. istanc tcti, p. 240, footnote).
GERUND AND GERUNDIVE
When the Gerund would have an object in the Accusative, the Gerundive
219 is generally used instead. The gerundive agrees with its noun, which takes the case that the gerund would have had:
partirs ad omnia percula subeunda (B. G. 1.5), readier to undergo all dangers. [Here subeunda agrees with percula, which is itself governed by ad. The (inadmissible) construction with the gerund would be ad subeundum percula; ad governing the gerund, and the gerund governing the accusative percula.] For details, see 504-507. [p. 317]
NOTE 1.In this use the gerund and the gerundive are translated in the same way, but have really a different construction. The gerundive is a passive participle, and agrees with its noun, though in translation we change the voice, just as we may translate vigiliae agitandae sunt (guard must be kept) by I must stand guard.
NOTE 2.In the gerundive construction the verbs tor, fruor, etc., are treated like transitive verbs governing the accusative, as they do in early Latin ( 410. a. N. 1): as, ad perfruends voluptts (Off. 1.25), for enjoying pleasures.
The following examples illustrate the parallel constructions of Gerund and Gerundive:
GEN. cnsilium urbem capiend urbis capiendae a design of taking the city.
DAT. dat operam agrs colend agrs colends he attends to tilling the fields.
ACC. veniunt ad mihi prendum pcem petendam they come to obey me. to seek peace.
ABL. terit tempus scrbend epistuls scrbends epistuls he spends time in writing letters.
NOTE 1.The gerund with a direct object is practically limited to the Genitive and the Ablative (without a preposition); even in these cases the gerundive is commoner.
NOTE 2.The gerund or gerundive is often found cordinated with nominal constructions, and sometimes even in apposition with a noun:
(1) in for, in cri, in amcrum perculs prpulsands (Phil. 7.7), in the forum, in the senate-house, in defending my friends in jeopardy.
(2) ad rs dversissims, prendum atque imperandum (Liv. 21.4), for the most widely different things, obeying and commanding.
Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive
The Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive is used after nouns or adjectives, either as subjective or objective genitive:
vvend fnis est optimus (Cat. M. 72), it is the best end of living. [Subjective.]
neque cnsil habend neque arma capiend spati dat; (B. G. 4.14), time being given neither for forming plans nor for taking arms. [Objective.]
nn tam commtandrum quam vertendrum rrum cupids (Off. 2.3), desirous not so much of changing as of destroying the state. [Objective.]
NOTE 1.In these uses the gerund and the gerundive are about equally common.
NOTE 2.In a few phrases the Infinitive is used with nouns which ordinarily have the genitive of the gerund or gerundive: as,tempus est abre, it is time to go.
The genitive of the gerund sometimes takes a direct object, especially a neuter pronoun or a neuter adjective used substantively:
nlla causa ista cuiquam esse potest contr patriam arma capiend; (Phil. 2.53), no one can have a just cause for taking up arms against his country.
artem vra ac falsa didicand; (De Or. 2.157), the art of distinguishing true from false. [p. 318]
NOTE 1.The genitive of the gerund or gerundive is used (especially in later Latin) as a predicate genitive. When so used it often expresses purpose:
quae postquam glrisa modo neque bell patrand cgnvit (Iug. 88), when he perceived that these were only brilliant deeds and not likely to end the war.
Aegyptum proficscitur cgnscendae antquittis (Tac. Ann. 2.59), he sets out for Egypt to study old times.
The genitive of the gerund or gerundive with caus or grati expresses purpose ( 533. b):
pbuland aut frmentand caus prgress; (B. C. 1.48), having advanced for the purpose of collecting fodder or supplies.
vtandae suspcionis caus; (Cat. 1.19), in order to avoid suspicion.
simuland grti; (Iug. 37), in order to deceive.
exercendae memriae grti; (Cat. M. 38), for the sake of training the memory.
The genitive of the gerund is occasionally limited by a noun or pronoun (especially a personal pronoun in the plural) in the objective genitive instead of taking a direct object:
riciend trium idicum potests (Verr. 2.77), the power of challenging three jurors (of the rejecting of three jurors).
su colligend facults (B. G. 3.6), the opportunity to recover themselves.
Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive
The Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used in a few expressions after verbs:
220
diem praestitit oper faciend (Verr. 2.1.148), he appointed a day for doing the work.
praeesse agr colend (Rosc. Am. 50), to take charge of cultivating the land.
esse solvend, to be able to pay (to be for paying).
NOTE.The dative of the gerund with a direct object is never found in classic Latin, but occurs twice in Plautus.
The dative of the gerund and gerundive is used after adjectives,
221 especially those which denote fitness or adaptability:
genus armrum aptum tegends corporibus (Liv. 32.10), a sort of armor suited to the defence of the body.
reliqua tempora dmetends frctibus et percipiends accommodta sunt (Cat. M. 70), the other seasons are fitted to reap and gather in the harvest.
perferends mlitum mandts idneus (Tac. Ann. 1.23), suitable for carrying out the instructions of the soldiers.
NOTE.This construction is very common in Livy and later writers, infrequent in classical prose. [p. 319]
The dative of the gerund and gerundive is used in certain legal phrases after nouns meaning officers, offices, elections, etc., to indicate the function or scope of the office etc.:
comitia cnsulibus rogands (Div. 1.33), elections for nominating consuls.
triumvir colnis ddcunds (Iug. 42), a triumvir for planting colonies.
triumvir re pblicae cnstituendae (title of the Triumvirate), triumvirs (a commission of three) for settling the government.
Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive
The Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used after the preposition ad, to denote Purpose (cf. 533):
m vocs ad scrbendum (Or. 34), you summon me to write.
vvis nn ad dpnendam sed ad cnfrmandam audciam (Cat. 1.4), you live not to put off but to confirm your daring.
nactus adits ad ea cnanda (B. C. 1.31), having found means to undertake these things.
NOTE 1.Other prepositions appear in this construction; inter and ob a few times, circ, in, ante, and a few others very rarely: as, inter agendum (Ecl. 9.24), while driving.
NOTE 2.The Accusative of the gerund with a preposition never takes a direct object in classic Latin.
Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive
The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used (1) to express manner,
222 means, cause, etc.; (2) after Comparatives; and (3) after the propositions ab, d, ex, in, and (rarely) pr:
(1) multa pollicend persudet (Iug. 46), he persuades by large promises.
Latn loquend cuivs pr (Brut. 128), equal to any man in speaking Latin.
hs ipss legends (Cat. M. 21), by reading these very things.
obscram atque humilem conciend ad s multitdinem (Liv. 1.8), calling to them a mean and obscure multitude.
(2) nllum officium referend grti magis necessrium est (Off. 1.47), no duty is more important than repaying favors.
(3) in r gerend versr (Cat. M. 17), to be employed in conducting affairs.
NOTE 1.The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is also very rarely used with verbs and adjectives: as,nec continuand abstitit magistrt (Liv. 9.34), he did not desist from continuing his magistracy.
NOTE 2.The ablative of the gerund rarely takes a direct object in classic prose. [p. 320]
SUPINE
The Supine is a verbal abstract of the fourth declension ( 94. b), having no distinction of tense or person, and limited to two uses. (1) The form in -um is the Accusative of the end of motion ( 428. i). (2) The form in - is usually Dative of purpose ( 382), but the Ablative was early confused with it.
The Supine in -um is used after verbs of motion to express purpose. It may take an object in the proper case:
quid est, musne sessum? ets admonitum vnimus t, nn flgittum (De Or. 3.17), how now, shall we be seated? though we have come to remind, not to entreat you.
nptum dare (collocre), to give in marriage.
vnrunt questum iniris (Liv. 3.25), they came to complain of wrongs.
NOTE 1.The supine in -um is especially common with e, and with the passive infinitive r forms the future infinitive passive:
fure cvs qu rem pblicam perditum rent (Sall. Cat. 36), there were citizens who went about to ruin the republic.
s scret s trucdtum r (Div. 2.22), if he (Pompey) had known that he was going to be murdered. [Rare except in Cicero. For the more usual way of expressing the future passive infinitive, see 569. 3. a.]
NOTE 2.The supine in -um is occasionally used when motion is merely implied.
The Supine in -
223 is used with a few adjectives and with the nouns fs, nefs, and opus, to denote an action in reference to which the quality is asserted:
rem nn modo vs foedam, sed etiam audt (Phil. 2.63), a thing not only shocking to see, but even to hear of.
quaerunt quid optimum fact sit (Verr. 2.1.68), they ask what is best to do.
s hc fs est dict (Tusc. 5.38), if this is lawful to say.
vidtis nefs esse dict miseram fuisse tlem senecttem (Cat. M. 13), you see it is a sin to say that such an old age was wretched.
NOTE 1.The supine in - is thus in appearance an Ablative of Specification ( 418).
NOTE 2.The supine in - is found especially with such adjectives as indicate an effect on the senses or the feelings, and those which denote ease, difficulty, and the like. But with facilis, difficilis, and icundus, ad with the gerund is more common:
nec vs facilis nec dict adfbilis ll; (Aen. 3.621), he is not pleasant for any man to look at or address.
difficilis ad distinguendum similitd; (De Or. 2.212), a likeness difficult to distinguish.
NOTE 3.With all these adjectives the poets often use the Infinitive in the same sense: as,facils aurem praebre (Prop. 2.21.15), indulgent to lend an ear.
NOTE 4.The supine in - with a verb is extremely rare: as,pudet dict (Tac. Agr. 32), it is a shame to tell. [On the analogy of pudendum dict.] [p. 321]
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
The Conditional Sentence differs from other complex sentences in this, that the form of the main clause (APODOSIS) is determined in some degree by the nature of the subordinate clause (PROTASIS) upon the truth of which the whole statement depends. Like all complex sentences, however, the Conditional Sentence has arisen from the use of two independent sentence-forms to express the parts of a thought which was too complicated to be fully expressed by a simple sentence. But because the thoughts thus expressed are in reality closely related, as parts of a single whole, the sentences which represent them are also felt to be mutually dependent, even though the relation is not expressed by any connecting word. Thus, Speak the word: my servant shall be healed is a simpler and an earlier form of expression than If thou speak the word, etc.
The Conditional Particles were originally pronouns without conditional meaning: thus, s, if, is a weak demonstrative of the same origin as sc, so (s-ce like h-ce, see 215. 5), and had originally the meaning of in that way, or in some way. Its relative sense (if) seems to have come from its use with sc to make a pair of correlatives: thus ... thus (see 512. b).
In its origin the Conditional Sentence assumed one of two forms. The condition was from the first felt to be a condition, not a fact or a command; but, as no special sentence-form for a condition was in use, it employed for its expression either a statement of fact (with the Indicative) or a form of mild command (the Subjunctive). From the former have come all the uses of the Indicative in protasis; from the latter all the uses of the Subjunctive in protasis. The Apodosis has either (1) the Indicative, expressing the conclusion as a fact, and the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, expressing it originally as futureand hence more or less doubtfulor (2) the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive expressing it as futrum in praeterit,
224 and so unfulfilled in the present or past. Thus,rds, mire cachinn concutitur, you laugh, he shakes with more boisterous laughter, is the original form for the Indicative in protasis and apodosis; s rds originally means merely you laugh in some way or other, and so, later, IF you laugh. So rogs Aristnem, neget, ask Aristo, he would say no, is the original form of the subjunctive in protasis and apodosis; s rogs would mean ask in some way or other. In s rogres, negret, the Imperfect rogrs transfers the command of rogs to past time,
225 with the meaning suppose you had asked, and s would have the same meaning as before; while negret transfers the future idea of neget to past time, and means he was going to deny. Now the stating of this supposition at all gives rise to the implication that it is untrue in point of fact,because, if it were true, there would ordinarily be no need to state it as a supposition: for it would then be a simple fact, and as such would be put in the indicative.
226 Such a condition or conclusion [p. 322]
was originally past, meaning suppose you had asked [yesterday], he was going to deny) it came to express an unfulfilled condition in the present: suppose (or if) you were now asking, he would [now] denyjust as in English ought, which originally meant owed,
227 has come to express a present obligation.
For the classification of Conditional Sentences, see 513.
PROTASIS AND APODOSIS
A complete Conditional Sentence consists of two clauses the Protasis and the Apodosis.
The clause containing the condition is called the PROTASIS the clause containing the conclusion is called the APODOSIS:
s qu exre volunt [PROTASIS], cnvre possum [APODOSIS] (Cat. 2.27), if any wish to depart, I can keep my eyes shut.
s est in exsili [PROTASIS], quid amplius postultis [APODOSIS] (Lig. 13), if he is in exile, what more do you ask?
It should be carefully noted that the Apodosis is the main clause and the Protasis the dependent clause.
The Protasis is regularly introduced by the conditional particle s, if, or one of its compounds.
NOTE.These compounds are sn, nisi, etiam s, ets, tamets, tamenets (see Conditional and Concessive Particles, p. 138). An Indefinite Relative, or any relative or concessive word, may also serve to introduce a conditional clause: see Conditional Relative Clauses ( 519, 542); Concessive Clauses ( 527).
The Apodosis is often introduced by some correlative word or phrase: as, ita, tum (rarely sc), or e condicine etc.:
ita enim senects honesta est, s s ipsa dfendit (Cat. M. 38), on this condition is old age honorable, if it defends itself.
s quidem m amret, tum istuc prdesset (Ter. Eun. 446), if he loved me, then this would be profitable.
sc scrbs aliquid, s vacbis (Att. 12.38.2), if you are (shall be) at leisure, then you will write something.
The Apodosis is the principal clause of the conditional sentence, but may at the same time be subordinate to some other clause, and so appear in the form of a Participle, an Infinitive, or a Phrase:
sepultr quoque prohibitr, n rx humr iussisset (Q. C. 8.2.12), intending also to deprive him of burial, unless the king had ordered him to be interred. [p. 323]
quod s praetere nm sequtur, tamen s cum sl decim legine itrum [esse] (B. G. 1.40.14), but if no one else should follow, he would go with the tenth legion alone.
s qus adversum proelium commovret, hs reperre posse (id. 40.8), if the loss of a battle alarmed any, they might find, etc.
NOTE.When the Apodosis itself is in Indirect Discourse, or in any other dependent construction, the verb of the Protasis is regularly in the Subjunctive (as in the above examples, see 589).
CLASSIFICATION OF CONDITIONS
Conditions are either (1) Particular or (2) General.
1. A Particular Condition refers to a definite act or series of acts occurring at some definite time.
2. A General Condition refers to any one of a class of acts which may occur (or may have occurred) at any time.
The principal or typical forms of Conditional Sentences may be exhibited as follows:
PARTICULAR CONDITIONS
A. SIMPLE CONDITIONS (nothing implied as to fulfilment)
1. Present Time
Present Indicative in both clauses:
s adest, bene est, if he is [now] here, it is well.
2. Past Time
Imperfect or Perfect Indicative in both clauses:
s aderat, bene erat, if he was [then] here, it was well.
s adfuit, bene fuit, if he has been [was] here, it has been [was] well.
B. FUTURE CONDITIONS (as yet unfulfilled)
1. More Vivid
a. Future Indicative in both clauses:
s aderit, bene erit, if he is (shall be) here, it will be well.
b. Future Perfect Indicative in protasis, Future Indicative in apodosis:
s adfuerit, bene erit, if he is (shall have been) here, it will [then] be well [p. 324]
2. Less Vivid
a. Present Subjunctive in both clauses:
s adsit, bene sit, if he should be (or were to be) here, it would be well.
b. Perfect Subjunctive in protasis, Present Subjunctive in apodosis:
s adfuerit, bene sit, if he should be (should have been) here, it would [then] be well.
C. CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT
1. Present Time
Imperfect Subjunctive in both clauses:
s adesset, bene esset, if he were [now] here, it would be well (but he is NOT here).
2. Past Time
Pluperfect Subjunctive in both clauses:
s adfuisset, bene fuisset, if he had [then] been here, it would have been well (but he was NOT here).
NOTE.The use of tenses in Protasis is very loose in English. Thus if he is alive now is a PRESENT condition, to be expressed in Latin by the Present Indicative; if he is alive next year is a FUTURE condition, expressed in Latin by the Future Indicative. Again, if he were here now is a PRESENT condition contrary to fact, and would be expressed by the Imperfect Subjunctive; if he were to see me thus is a FUTURE condition less vivid, to be expressed by the Present Subjunctive; and so <*>o, if you advised him, he would attend may be future less vivid.
228
D. GENERAL CONDITIONS
General Conditions do not usually differ in form from Particular Conditions (A, B, and C), but are sometimes distinguished in the cases following:
1. Present General Condition (Indefinite Time)
a. Present Subjunctive second person singular (Indefinite Subject) in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis:
s hc dcs, crditur, if any one [ever] says this, it is [always] believed.
b. Perfect Indicative in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis:
s quid dxit, crditur, if he [ever] says anything, it is [always] believed. [p. 325]
2. Past General Condition (Repeated Action in Past Time)
a. Pluperfect Indicative in protasis, Imperfect Indicative in apodosis:
s quid dxerat, crdbtur, if he [ever] said anything, it was [always] believed.
b. Imperfect Subjunctive in protasis, Imperfect Indicative in apodosis:
s quid dceret, crdbtur, if he [ever] said anything, it was [always] believed (= whatever he said was always believed).
Cf. the Greek forms corresponding to the various types of conditions:
PARTICULAR CONDITIONS
Simple Present and Past ConditionsNothing Implied
In the statement of Present and Past conditions whose falsity is NOT implied, the Present and Past tenses of the Indicative are used in both Protasis and Apodosis:
s t exercitusque valtis, bene est (Fam. 5.2), if you and the army are well, it is well. [Present Condition.]
haec igitur, s Rmae es; sn ades, aut etiam s ades, haec negtia sc s habent (Att. 5.18), this, then, if you are at Rome; but if you are awayor even if you are therethese matters are as follows. [Present Condition.]
s Caesarem probtis, in m offenditis (B. C. 2.32.10), if you favor Csar, you find fault with me. [Present Condition.]
s qu mgns in e genere exstitrunt, nn satis Graecrum glriae respondrunt (Tusc. 1.3), if any have shown themselves of great genius in that department, they have failed to compete with the glory of the Greeks. [Past General Condition, not distinguished in form from Particular.]
accp Rm sine epistul tu fasciculum litterrum in qu, s modo valuist et Rmae fuist, Philotm dc esse culpam nn tuam (Att. 5.17), I have received from Rome a bundle of letters without any from you, which, provided you have been well and at Rome, I take to be the fault of Philotimus, not yours. [Mixed: Past condition and Present conclusion.]
qus litters, s Rmae es, vidbis putsne reddends (id. 5.18), as to this letter, if you are at Rome, you will see whether in your opinion it ought to be delivered. [Mixed: Present and Future.]
s nm impetrvit, adroganter rog (Lig. 30), if no one has succeeded in obtaining it, my request is presumptuous. [Past and Present.] [p. 326]
In these conditions the apodosis need not always be in the Indicative, but may assume any form, according to the sense:
s placet ... videmus (Cat. M. 15), if you please, let us see. [Hortatory Subjunctive, 439.]
s nndum satis cernitis, recordmin (Mil. 61), if you do not yet see clearly, recollect. [Imperative.]
s quid habs certius, velim scre (Att. 4.10), if you have any trustworthy information, I should like to know it. [Subjunctive of Modesty, 447. 1.]
NOTE.Although the form of these conditions does not imply anything as to the truth of the supposition, the sense or the context may of course have some such implication:
nlte, s in nostr omnium flt nllam lacrimam aspexistis Milnis, hc minus ei parcere (Mil. 92), do not, if amid the weeping of us all you have seen no tear [in the eyes] of Milo, spare him the less for that.
petimus vbs, idics, s qua dvna in tants ingenis commendti dbet esse, ut eum in vestram accipitis fidem (Arch. 31), we ask you, judges, if there ought to be anything in such genius to recommend it to us as by a recommendation of the gods, that you receive him under your protection.
In these two passages, the protasis really expresses cause: but the cause is put by the speaker in the form of a non-committal condition. His hearers are to draw the inference for themselves. In this way the desired impression is made on their minds more effectively than if an outspoken causal clause had been used.
Future Conditions
Future Conditions may be more vivid or less vivid.
1. In a more vivid future condition the protasis makes a distinct supposition of a future case, the apodosis expressing what will be the logical result.
2. In a less vivid future condition, the supposition is less distinct, the apodosis expressing what would be the result in the case supposed.
In the more vivid future condition the Future Indicative is used in both protasis and apodosis:
snbimur, s volmus (Tusc. 3.13), we shall be healed if we wish.
quod s legere aut audre voltis, ... reperitis (Cat. M. 20), if you will [shall wish to] read or hear, you will find.
NOTE.In English the protasis is usually expressed by the Present Indicative, rarely by the Future with SHALL. Often in Latin the Present Indicative is found in the protasis of a condition of this kind (cf. 468):
s vincimus, omnia nbs tta erunt; sn met cesserimus, eadem illa advorsa fent (Sall. Cat. 58), if we conquer, all things will be safe for us; but if we yield through fear, those same things will become hostile.
s pere, hominum manibus perlisse iuvbit (Aen. 3.606), if I perish, it will be pleasant to have perished at the hands of men. [p. 327]
In the less vivid future condition the Present Subjunctive is used in both protasis and apodosis:
haec s tcum patria loqutur, nnne impetrre dbeat (Cat. 1.19), if your country should thus speak with you, ought she not to prevail?
quod s quis deus mihi largitur, ... vald recsem (Cat. M. 83), but if some god were to grant me this, I should stoutly refuse.
NOTE.The Present Subjunctive sometimes stands in protasis with the Future (or the Present) Indicative in apodosis from a change in the point of view:
229
s dligenter attendmus, intellegmus (Inv. 2.44), if we attend (should attend) carefully, we shall understand.
nisi hc dcat, ire fc, nn habet dfnsinem (id. 1.18), unless he should say this, I acted justifiably, he has no defence.
If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that of the apodosis begins, the Future Perfect is substituted for the Future Indicative in protasis, and the Perfect Subjunctive for the Present Subjunctive:
sn cum potuer nn vner, tum erit inimcus (Att. 9.2A. 2), but if I do not come when I can, he will be unfriendly.
s corn relictus sim, nn queam dcere (Brut. 192), if I should be deserted by the circle of listeners, I should not be able to speak.
NOTE.The Future Perfect is often used in the apodosis of a future condition: as,vehementer mihi grtum fceris, s hunc adulscentem hmnitte tu comprehenderis (Fam. 13.15), you will do (will have done) me a great favor, if you receive this young man with your usual courtesy.
Any form denoting or implying future time may stand in the apodosis of a future condition. So the Imperative, the participles in -dus and -rus, and verbs of necessity, possibility, and the like:
alius fnis cnstituendus est, s prius quid maxim reprehendere Scpi solitus sit dxer; (Lael. 59), another limit must be set, if I first state what Scipio was wont most to find fault with.
s m praecperit ftum, vs mandsse mement (Q. C. 9.6.26), if fate cuts me off too soon, do you remember that I ordered this.
nisi oculs vderitis nsidis Miln Cldi facts, nec dprectr sumus nec postultr (Mil. 6), unless you see with your own eyes the plots laid against Milo by Clodius, I shall neither beg nor demand, etc.
nn possum istum accsre, s cupiam (Verr. 4.87), I cannot accuse him, if I should (so) desire [p. 328]
Rarely the Perfect Indicative is used in apodosis with a Present or even a Future (or Future Perfect) in protasis, to represent the conclusion rhetorically as already accomplished:
s hc bene fxum in anim est, vcistis (Liv. 21.44), if this is well fixed in your minds, you have conquered. [For you will have conquered.]
s eundem [animum] habueritis, vcimus (id. 21.43), if you shall have kept the same spirit, we have conquered.
A future condition is frequently thrown back into past time, without implying that it is contrary to fact ( 517). In such cases the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive may be used:
nn poterat, nisi dcertre vellet (B. C. 3.44), he was not able, unless he wished to fight.
tumulus appruit, ... s lce palam rtur hostis praeventrus erat (Liv. 22.24), a hill appeared ... if they should go openly by daylight, the enemy would prevent. [The first two appear like Indirect Discourse, but are not. An observer describing the situation in the first example as present would say nn potest nisi velit (see d), and no indirect discourse would be thought of.]
Caesar s peteret, ... nn quicquam prficeret (Hor. S. 1.3.4), if even Csar were to ask, he would gain nothing. [Here the construction is not contrary to fact, but is simply s petat, nn prficiat, thrown into past time.]
Conditions Contrary to Fact
In the statement of a supposition impliedly false, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in both protasis and apodosis.
230 The Imperfect refers to present time, the Pluperfect to past:
s vveret, verba ius audrtis (Rosc. Com. 42), if he were living, you would hear his words. [Present.]
nisi t msisss, numquam recpissem (Cat. M. 11), unless you had lost it, I should not have recovered it. [Past.]
s meum cnsilium valuisset, t hodi egrs, rs pblica nn tot ducs msisset (Phil. 2.37), if my judgment had prevailed [as it did not], you would this day be a beggar, and the republic would not have lost so many leaders. [Mixed Present and Past.] [p. 329]
In conditions contrary to fact the Imperfect often refers to past time, both in protasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or continued action is denoted, or when the condition if true would still exist:
s nihil litters adiuvrentur, numquam s ad erum studium contulissent (Arch. 16), if they had not been helped at all by literature, they never would have given their attention to the study of it. [Without the condition, adiuvbantur.]
hc s mentis esset suae, ausus esset dcere exercitum (Pison. 50), if he were of sane mind, would he have dared to lead out the army? [Here esset denotes a continued state, past as well as present.]
nn concidissent, nisi illud receptculum classibus nostrs patret (Verr. 2.3), [the power of Carthage] would not have fallen, unless that station had been [constantly] open to our fleets. [Without the condition, patbat.]
In the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact the past tenses of the Indicative may be used to express what was intended, or likely, or already begun. In this use, the Imperfect Indicative corresponds in time to the Imperfect Subjunctive, and the Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative to the Pluperfect Subjunctive:
s licitum esset, mtrs venibant (Verr. 5.129), the mothers were coming if it had been allowed.
in amplexs fliae rubat, nisi lctrs obstitissent (Tac. Ann. 16.32), he was about rushing into his daughter's arms, unless the lictors had opposed.
iam tta tenbam, n gns crdlis ferr invsisset (Aen. 6.358), I was just reaching a place of safety, had not the fierce people attacked me.
NOTE 1.Here the apodosis may be regarded as elliptical. Thus,mtrs venibant (et vnissent), the matrons were coming (and would have kept on) if, etc.
NOTE 2.With paene (and sometimes prope), almost, the Perfect Indicative is used in the apodosis of a past condition contrary to fact: as,pns iter paene hostibus dedit, n nus vir fuisset (Liv. 2.10), the bridge had almost given a passage to the foe, if it had not been for one hero.
Verbs and other expressions denoting necessity, propriety, possibility, duty, when used in the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact, may be put in the Imperfect or Perfect Indicative.
Such are oportet, decet, dbe, possum, necesse est, opus est, and the Second Periphrastic Conjugation:
231
nn potuit fier sapins, nisi ntus esset (Fin. 2.103), he could not have become a sage, if he had not been born.
s prvtus esset hc tempore, tamen is erat dligendus (Manil. 50), if he were at this time a private citizen, yet he ought to be appointed. [p. 330]
quod esse caput dbbat, s probr posset (Fin. 4.23), what ought to be the main point, if it could be proved.
s ita putsset, cert optbilius Miln fuit (Mil. 31), if he had thought so, surely it would have been preferable for Milo.
NOTE 1.In Present conditions the Imperfect Subjunctive (oportret, possem, etc.) is the rule, the Indicative being rare; in Past conditions both the Subjunctive (usually Pluperfect) and the Indicative (usually Perfect) are common.
For pr erat, melius fuit, and the like, followed by the infinitive, see 521. N.
NOTE 2.The indicative construction is carried still further in poetry: as,s nn alium iactret odrem, laurus erat (Georg. 2.133), it were a laurel, but for giving out a different odor.
The participle in -rus with eram or fu may take the place of an Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact:
quid enim futrum fuit [=fuisset], s ... (Liv. 2.1), what would have happened if, etc.
relictr agrs erant, nisi ad es Metellus litters msisset (Verr. 3.121), they would have abandoned their fields, if Metellus had not sent them a letter.
neque ambigitur qun ... id factrus fuerit, s ... (Liv. 2.1), nor is there any question that he would have done it, if, etc. [Direct: fcisset.]
ade parta sditi fuit ut Othnem raptr fuerint, n incerta noctis timuissent (Tac. H. 1.26), so far advanced was the conspiracy that they would have seized upon Otho, had they not feared the hazards of the night. [In a main clause: rapuissent, n timuissent.]
The Present Subjunctive is sometimes used in poetry in the protasis and apodosis of conditions contrary to fact:
n comes admoneat, inruat (Aen. 6.293), had not his companion warned him, he would have rushed on. [Cf. t s hc ss, aliter sentis (Ter. And. 310), if you were in my place, you would think differently.]
NOTE 1.This is probably a remnant of an old construction (see next note).
NOTE 2.In old Latin the Present Subjunctive (as well as the Imperfect) is used in present conditions contrary to fact and the Imperfect (more rarely the Pluperfect) in past conditions of the same kind. Thus it appears that the Imperfect Subjunctive, like the Imperfect Indicative, once denoted past time, even in conditional sentences. Gradually, however, in conditional sentences, the Present Subjunctive was restricted to the less vivid future and the Imperfect (in the main) to the present contrary to fact, while the Pluperfect was used in past conditions of this nature. The old construction, however, seems to have been retained as an archaism in poetry.
In Plautus and Terence absque m (t, etc.) is sometimes used to introduce conditions contrary to fact:
absque t esset, hodi nusquam vverem (Pl. Men. 1022), if it were not for you, I should not be alive to-day.
absque e esset, rct ego mihi vdissem (Ter. Ph. 188), if it had not been for him, I should have looked out for myself. [p. 331]
GENERAL CONDITIONS
General Conditions ( 513. 2) have usually the same forms as Particular Conditions. But they are sometimes distinguished in the following cases:
The Subjunctive is often used in the second person singular, to denote the act of an indefinite subject (you = any one). Here the Present Indicative of a general truth may stand in the apodosis:
vta hmna prope ut ferrum est: s exerces, conteritur; s nn exerces, tamen rbg interficit (Cato de M.), human life is very like iron: if you use it, it wears away; if you don't use it, rust still destroys it.
virttem necessri glria, etiams t id nn ags, cnsequitur (Tusc. 1.91), glory necessarily follows virtue, even if that is not one's aim.
s prohibita impne trnscenderis, neque metus ultr neque pudor est (Tac. Ann. 3.54), if you once overstep the bounds with impunity, there is no fear or shame any more.
In a general condition in present time, the protasis often takes the Perfect Indicative, and the apodosis the Present Indicative. For past time, the Pluperfect is used in the protasis, and the Imperfect in the apodosis:
s qus aliqu parte membrrum intils ntvrunt, necr iubent (Q. C. 9.1.25), if they [ever] mark any infirm in any part of their limbs, they [always] order them to be put to death. [Present.]
s persequend hosts dterrre nequverant, ab terg circumvenibant (Iug. 50), if [ever] they were unable to prevent the enemy from pursuing, they [always] surrounded them in the rear. [Past.]
In later writers (rarely in Cicero and Csar), the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in protasis, with the Imperfect Indicative in apodosis, to state a repeated or customary action in past time (Iterative Subjunctive):
s quis domin prehendertur, concurs mlitum ripibtur (B. C. 3.110), if any (runaway) was arrested by his master, he was (always) rescued by a mob of soldiers.
accstrs, s facults incideret, poens adficibantur (Tac. Ann. 6.30), the accusers, whenever opportunity offered, were visited with punishment.
s quis collgam appellsset, ab e ita discdbat ut paenitret nn priris dcrt stetisse (Liv. 3.36.8), if any one appealed to a colleague, he [always] came off in such case that he repented not having submitted to the decree of the former decemvir. [Cf. Scrats, quam s cumque in partem dedisset, omnium fuit facile prnceps (De Or. 3.60), in whatever direction Socrates turned himself, he was (always) easily the foremost (if in any. etc.).] [p. 332]
Conditional Relative Clauses
A clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb may express a condition and take any of the constructions of Protasis
232 ( 514):
qu enim vitis modum adpnit, is partem suscipit vitirum (Tusc. 4.42), he who [only] sets a limit to faults, takes up the side of the faults. [=s quis adpnit. Present, nothing implied.]
qu mentr solet, pierre cnsuvit (Rosc. Com. 46), whoever is in the habit of lying, is accustomed to swear falsely. [=s quis solet. Present, nothing implied.]
quicquid potuit, potuit ipsa per s; (Leg. Agr. 1.20), whatever power she had, she had by herself. [=s quid potuit. Past, nothing implied.]
quod qu faciet, nn aegritdine slum vacbit, sed, etc. (Tusc. 4.38), and he who does (shall do) this, will be free not only, etc. [=s quis faciet. Future, more vivid.]
quisquis hc vnerit, vpulbit (Pl. Am. 309), whoever comes here shall get a thrashing. [=s quis vnerit. Future, more vivid.]
qu vols, sequar (Clu. 71), whithersoever you wish (shall wish), I will follow. [=s qu vols. Future, more vivid.]
philosophia, cui qu preat, omne tempus aettis sine molesti possit dgere (Cat. M. 2), philosophy, which if any one should obey, he would be able to spend his whole life without vexation. [=s quis preat. Future, less vivid.]
quaecumque vs causa hc attulisset, laetrer (De Or. 2.15), I should be glad whatever cause had brought you here (i.e. if any other, as well as the one which did). [=s ... attulisset. Contrary to fact.]
The relative in this construction is always indefinite in meaning, and very often in form.
The special constructions of General Conditions are sometimes found in Conditional Relative Clauses:
1. The Second Person Singular of the Subjunctive in the protasis with the Indicative of a general truth in the apodosis ( 518. a):
bonus tantum modo sgnior fit ubi neglegs, at malus improbior (Iug. 31.28), a good man merely becomes less diligent when you don't watch him, but a bad man becomes more shameless. [Present General Condition.]
2. The Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative in the protasis and the Present or Imperfect Indicative in the apodosis ( 518. b):
cum hc vn, hc ipsum nihil agere m dlectat (De Or. 2.24), whenever I come here, this very doing nothing delights me (whenever I have come, etc.). [Present General Condition.] [p. 333]
cum rosam vderat, tum incipere vr arbitrbtur (Verr. 5.27), whenever he saw (had seen) a rose, then he thought spring was beginning. [Past General Condition.]
3. In later writers (rarely in Cicero and Csar) the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the protasis and the Imperfect Indicative in the apodosis ( 518. c):
ubi imbcillits mteriae postulre vidrtur, plae interpnuntur (B. C. 2.16), wherever the weakness of the timber seemed to require, piles were put between. [Past General Condition: interpnuntur = interpnbantur.]
qucumque s intulisset, victriam scum trahbat (Liv. 6.8), wherever he advanced, he carried victory with him. [Past General Condition.]
Condition Disguised
In many sentences properly conditional, the Protasis is not expressed by a conditional clause, but is stated in some other form of words or implied in the nature of the thought.
The condition may be implied in a Clause, or in a Participle, Noun, Adverb, or some other word or phrase:
facile m patererill ips idice quaerentepr Sex. Rsci dcere (Rosc. Am. 85), I should readily allow myself to speak for Roscius if that very judge were conducting the trial. [Present contrary to fact: s quaereret, paterer.]
nn mihi, nisi admonit, vnisset in mentem (De Or. 2.180), it would not have come into my mind unless [I had been] reminded. [Past contrary to fact: nisi admonitus essem.]
nlla alia gns tant mle cldis nn obruta esset (Liv. 22.54), there is no other people that would not have been crushed by such a weight of disaster. [Past contrary to fact: s alia fuisset.]
nm umquam sine mgn sp immortlittis s pr patri offerret ad mortem (Tusc. 1.32), no one, without great hope of immortality, would ever expose himself to death for his country. [Present contrary to fact: nisi mgnam spem habret.]
quid hunc paucrum annrum accessi iuvre potuisset (Lael. 11), what good could the addition of a few years have done him (if they had been added)? [Past contrary to fact: s accessissent.]
quid igitur mihi ferrum lanitus oberit nihil sentient (Tusc. 1.104), what harm will the mangling by wild beasts do me if I don't feel anything (feeling nothing)? [Future more vivid: s nihil sentiam.]
incitta semel prclv lbuntur sustinrque nll mod possunt (id. 4.42), if once given a push, they slide down rapidly and can in no way be checked. [Present General: s incitta sunt.] [p. 334]
NOTE.In several phrases denoting necessity, propriety, or the like, the Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect Indicative of esse is used in the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact, the protasis being implied in a subject infinitive (cf. 517. c):
quant melius fuerat prmissum nn esse servtum (Off. 3.94), how much better would it have been if the promise had not been kept! [prmissum ... servtum=s prmissum nn esset servtum.]
mor praeclrum fuit (Att. 8.2.2), it would have been honorable to die.
sed erat aequius Tririum aliquid d dissnsine nostr idicre (Fin. 2.119), but it would be more equitable if Triarius passed judgment on our dispute. [Tririum idicre=s Tririus idicret.]
satius fuit mittere mlits (Inv. 2.73), it would have been better to lose the soldiers. [mittere=s msisset.]
The condition may be contained in a wish (Optative Subjunctive), or expressed as an exhortation or command (Hortatory Subjunctive or Imperative):
utinam quidem fuissem! molestus nbs nn esset (Fam. 12.3), I wish I had been [chief]: he would not now be troubling us (i.e. if I had been). [Optative Subjunctive.]
ntram expells furc, tamen sque recurret (Hor. Ep. 1.10.24), drive out nature with a pitchfork, still she will ever return. [Hortatory.]
rogs enim Aristnem, neget (Fin. 4.69), for ask Aristo, he would deny.
manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria (Cat. M. 22), old men keep their mental powers, only let them keep their zeal and diligence ( 528. N.). [Hortatory.]
tolle hanc opninem, lctum sustuleris (Tusc. 1.30), remove this notion, and you will have done away with grief. [Imperative.]
NOTE.The so-called Concessive Subjunctive with ut and n often has the force of protasis ( 527. a. N.): as,ut enim ratinem Plat nllam adferret, ips auctritte m frangeret (Tusc. 1.49), even if Plato gave no reasons, [still] he would overpower me by his mere authority.
Rarely the condition takes the form of an independent clause:
rds: mire cachinn concutitur (Iuv. 3.100), you laugh; he shakes with louder laughter (=if you laugh, he shakes).
commov: sentis (Tusc. 4.54), stir him up, [and] you'll find, etc.
d paupertte agitur: mult patients paupers commemorantur (id. 3.57), we speak of poverty; many patient poor are mentioned.
For Conditional Relative Clauses, see 519, 520.
Condition Omitted
The Protasis is often wholly omitted, but may be inferred from the course of the argument:
poterat Sextilius impne negre: quis enim redargueret (Fin. 2.55), Sextilius might have denied with impunity; for who would prove him wrong (if he had denied)? [p. 335]
In expressions signifying necessity, propriety, and the like, the Indicative may be used in the apodosis of implied conditions, either future or contrary to fact:
quod contr decuit ab ill meum [corpus cremr] (Cat. M. 84), whereas on the other hand mine ought to have been burnt by him.
nam ns decbat domum lgre ubi esset aliquis in lcem ditus (Tusc. 1.115), for it were fitting for us to mourn the house where a man has been born (but we do not).
quant melius fuerat (Off. 3.94), how much better it would have been.
illud erat aptius, aequum cuique concdere (Fin. 4.2), it would be more fitting to yield each one his rights.
ipsum enim exspectre mgnum fuit (Phil. 2.103), would it have been a great matter to wait for the man himself?
longum est ea dcere, sed ... (Sest. 12), it would be tedious to tell, etc. [Future.]
NOTE 1.In this construction, the Imperfect Indicative refers to present time; the Pluperfect to simple past time, like the Perfect. Thus oportbat means it ought to be [now], but is not; oportuerat means it ought to have been, but was not.
NOTE 2.In many cases it is impossible to say whether a protasis was present to the mind of the speaker or not (see third example above).
Complex Conditions
Either the Protasis or the Apodosis may be a complex idea in which the main statement is made with expressed or implied qualifications. In such cases the true logical relation of the parts is sometimes disguised:
s quis hrum dxisset ... s verbum d r pblic fcisset ... multa plra dxisse quam dxisset putrtur (Rosc. Am. 2), if any of these had spoken, in case he had said a word about politics he would be thought to have said much more than he did say. [Here the apodosis of dxisset is the whole of the following statement (s ... putrtur), which is itself conditioned by a protasis of its own: s verbum, etc.].
quod s in hc mund fier sine de nn potest, n in sphaer quidem esdem mts sine dvn ingeni potuisset imitr; (Tusc. 1.63), now if that cannot be done in this universe without divine agency, no more could [Archimedes] in his orrery have imitated the same revolutions without divine genius. [Here s potest (a protasis with nothing implied) has for its apodosis the whole clause which follows, but potuisset has a contraryto-fact protasis of its own implied in sine ... ingeni.]
peream male s nn optimum erat (Hor. S. 2.1.6), confound me (may 1 perish wretchedly) if it would n't be better. [Here peream is apodosis to the rest of the sentence, while the true protasis to optimum erat, contrary to fact, is omitted.] [p. 336]
Clauses of Comparison (Conclusion Omitted)
Conditional Clauses of Comparison take the Subjunctive, usually in the Present or Perfect unless the sequence of tenses requires the Imperfect or Pluperfect.
Such clauses are introduced by the comparative particles tamquam, tamquam s, quasi, ac s, ut s, velut s (later velut), poetic ceu (all meaning as if), and by quam s (than if):
tamquam clausa sit Asia (Fam. 12.9), as if Asia were closed.
tamquam s claudus sim (Pl. Asin. 427), just as if I were lame.
ita hs [honrs] petunt, quasi honest vxerint (Iug. 85), they seek them (offices) just as if they had lived honorably.
quasi vr nn speci vsa idicentur (Acad. 2.58), as if forsooth visible things were not judged by their appearance.
similiter facis ac s m rogs (N. D. 3.8), you do exactly as if you asked me.
crdlittem horrrent velut s cram adesset (B. G. 1.32), they dreaded his cruelty (they said), as if he were present in person.
hc ingentem pgnam cernimus ceu ctera nusquam bella forent (Aen. 2.438), here we saw a great battle, as if there were no fighting elsewhere. [But sometimes with the indicative in poetry, as id. 5.88.]
magis m abesse vidbre quam s dom esss (Att. 6.5), you seemed to be absent from me more than if you were at home.
NOTE 1.These subjunctive clauses are really future conditions with apodosis implied in the particle itself. Thus in tamquam s claudus sim the protasis is introduced by s, and the apodosis implied in tamquam.
NOTE 2.The English idiom would lead us to expect the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive (contrary to fact) with these particles; but the point of view is different in the two languages. Thus the second example above is translated just as if I were lame,as if it were a present condition contrary to fact; but it really means just as [it would be] if I should [at some future time] be lame, and so is a less vivid future condition requiring the Present Subjunctive. Similarly quasi honest vxerint, as if they had lived honorably, is really as [they would do in the future] if they should have lived honorably and so requires the Perfect Subjunctive ( 516. c).
Even after a primary tense, the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive (contrary to fact) is often used in conditional clauses of comparison:
aequ t pet ac s mea negtia essent (Fam. 13.43), I entreat you as much as if it were my own business.
ius negtium sc velim suscipis ut s esset rs mea (id. 7.20.1), I would have you undertake his business as though it were my affair.
NOTE.The practice differs with the different particles. Thus in Cicero a clause with tamquam or quasi almost always observes the sequence of tenses, but with quam s the Imperfect or Pluperfect is the rule. [p. 337]
Use of s and its Compounds
The uses of some of the more common Conditional Particles may be stated as follows:
S is used for affirmative, nisi (n) and s nn for negative conditions.
1. With nisi (generally unless) the apodosis is stated as universally true except in the single case supposed, in which case it is (impliedly) not true:
nisi Conn adest, maere, unless Conon is here, I mourn (i.e. I am always in a state of grief except in the single case of Conon's presence, in which case I am not).
2. With s nn (if not) the apodosis is only stated as true in the (negative) case supposed, but as to other cases no statement is made:
s Conn nn adest, maere, if Conon is not here, I mourn (i.e. I mourn in the single case of Conon's absence, nothing being said as to other cases in which I may or may not mourn).
NOTE.It often makes no difference in which of these forms the condition is stated.
3. Sometimes nisi s, except if, unless, occurs:
nl putre m ad quemquam longirs epistuls sorbere, nisi s quis ad m plra scrpsit (Fam. 14.2), ... except in case one writes more to me.
NOTE.N is an old form surviving in a few conventional phrases and reappearing in poets and later writers.
Nisi vr and nisi forte regularly introduce an objection or exception ironically, and take the Indicative:
nisi vr L. Caesar crdlior vsus est (Cat. 4.13), unless indeed Lucius Csar seemed too cruel.
nisi forte volumus Epicrrum opninem sequ; (Fat. 37), unless, to be sure, we choose to follow the notion of the Epicureans.
NOTE.This is the regular way of introducing a reductio ad absurdum in Latin. Nisi alone is sometimes used in this sense: as,nisi num hc faciam ut in pute cnam coquant (Pl. Aul. 365), unless I do this one thing, [make them] cook dinner in the well.
Sve (seu) ... sve (seu), whether ... or, introduce a condition in the form of an alternative. They may be used with any form of condition, or with different forms in the two members. Often also they are used without a verb:
nam ill loc libentissim sole t, sve quid mcum ipse cgit, sve quid scrb aut leg; (Legg. 2.1), for I enjoy myself most in that place, whether I am thinking by myself, or am either writing or reading.
NOTE.Sve ... seu and seu ... sve are late or poetic. [p. 338]
Sn, but if, often introduces a supposition contrary to one that precedes:
accstor illum dfendet s poterit; sn minus poterit, negbit (Inv. 2.88), the accuser will defend him if he can; but if he cannot, he will deny.
Nisi is often used loosely by the comic poets in the sense of only when a negative (usually nesci) is expressed, or easily understood, in the main clause:
nesci: nisi m dxisse nmin cert sci; (Ter. Ph. 952), I don't know: only I am sure that I have n't told anybody.
CONCESSIVE CLAUSES
The concessive idea is rather vague and general, and takes a variety of forms, each of which has its distinct history. Sometimes concession is expressed by the Hortatory Subjunctive in a sentence grammatically independent ( 440), but it is more frequently and more precisely expressed by a dependent clause introduced by a concessive particle. The concessive force lies chiefly in the Conjunctions (which are indefinite or conditional in origin), and is often made clearer by an adversative particle (tamen, cert) in the main clause. As the Subjunctive may be used in independ ent clauses to express a concession, it is also employed in concessive clauses, and somewhat more frequently than the indicative.
The Particles of Concession (meaning although, granting that) are quamvs, ut, licet, ets, tamets, etiam s, quamquam, and cum.
Some of these take the Subjunctive, others the Indicative, according to the nature of the clause which each introduces.
Quamvs and ut take the Subjunctive:
quamvs ips nfants sint, tamen ... (Or. 76), however incapable of speaking they themselves may be, yet, etc.
quamvs scelert ill fuissent (De Or. 1.230), however guilty they might have been.
quamvs cmis in amcs tuends fuerit (Fin. 2.80), amiable as he may have been in keeping his friends.
ut nminem alium rogsset (Mil. 46), even if he had asked no other.
ut enim nn efficis quod vs, tamen mors ut malum nn sit efficis (Tusc. 1.16), for even if you do not accomplish what you wish, still you will prove that death is not an evil.
ut ratinem Plat nllam adferret (id. 1.49), though Plato adduced no reasons.
NOTE.Quamvs means literally as much as you will. Thus in the first example above, let them be as incapable as you will, still, etc. The subjunctive with quamvs is hortatory, like that with n ( 440); that with ut (ut nn) is of uncertain origin.
Licet, although, takes the Present or Perfect Subjunctive:
licet omns mihi terrrs perculaque impendeant (Rosc. Am. 31), though all terrors and perils should menace me. [p. 339]
NOTE.Licet is properly a verb in the present tense, meaning it is granted. Hence the subjunctive is by the sequence of tenses limited to the Present and Perfect. The concessive clause with licet is hortatory in origin, but may be regarded as a substantive clause serving as the subject of the impersonal verb ( 565. N.1).
Ets, etiam s, tamets, even if, take the same constructions as s (see 514):
ets abest mtrits, tamen nn est intile (Fam. 6.18.4), though ripeness of age is wanting, yet it is not useless, etc.
ets numquam dubium fuit, tamen perspici; (id. 5.19), although it has never been doubtful, yet I perceive, etc.
ets statueram (id. 5.5), though I had determined.
ets nihil aliud abstulisstis, tamen contents vs esse oportbat (Sull. 90), even if you had taken away nothing else, you ought to have been satisfied.
etiam s quod scrbs nn habbis, scrbit tamen (Fam. 16.26), even if you [shall] have nothing to write, still write.
sed ea tamets vs parv pendbtis (Sall. Cat. 52.9), but although you regarded those things as of small account.
NOTE 1.Tamets with the subjunctive is very rare.
NOTE 2.A protasis with s often has a concessive force: as,ego, s essent inimcitiae mihi cum C. Caesare, tamen hc tempore re pblicae cnsulere ... dbrem (Prov. Cons. 47), as for me, even if I had private quarrels with Csar, it would still be my duty to serve the best interests of the state at this crisis.
Quamquam, although, introduces an admitted fact and takes the Indicative:
omnibusquamquam ruit ipse sus cldibuspestem dnntiat (Phil. 14.8), though he is breaking down under his disasters, still he threatens all with destruction.
NOTE.Quamquam more commonly means and yet, introducing a new proposition in the indicative: as,quamquam haec quidem iam tolerbilia vidbantur, ets, etc. (Mil. 76), and yet these, in truth, seemed now bearable, though, etc.
The poets and later writers frequently use quamvs and quamquam like ets, connecting them with the Indicative or the Subjunctive, according to the nature of the condition:
quamquam movrtur (Liv. 36.34), although he was moved.
Polli amat nostram, quamvs est rstica, msam (Ecl. 3.84), Pollio loves my muse, though she is rustic.
quamvs pervners (Liv. 2.40), though you had come.
Ut, as, with the Indicative, may be equivalent to a concession:
vrum ut errre potuist, sc dcip t nn potuisse quis nn videt (Fam. 10.20.2), suppose you could have been mistaken, who does not see that you cannot have been deceived in this way?
For cum concessive, see 549; for qu concessive, see 535. e. For concession expressed by the Hortatory Subjunctive (negative n), see 440. [p. 340]
CLAUSES OF PROVISO
Dum, modo, dummodo, and tantum ut, introducing a Proviso, take the Subjunctive. The negative with these particles is n:
derint dum metuant (Off. 1.97), let them hate, if only they fear.
valtd modo bona sit (Brut. 64), provided the health be good.
dummodo inter m atque t mrus intersit (Cat. 1.10), provided only the wall (of the city) is between us.
tantum ut sciant (Att. 16.11.1), provided only they know.
modo n sit ex pecudum genere (Off. 1.105), provided [in pleasure] he be not of the herd of cattle.
id faciat saepe, dum n lassus fat (Cato R. R. 5.4), let him do this often, provided he does not get tired.
dummodo ea (sevrits) n varitur (Q. Fr. 1.1.20), provided only it (strictness) be not allowed to swerve.
tantum n noceat (Ov. M. 9.21), only let it do no harm.
NOTE.The Subjunctive with modo is hortatory or optative; that with dum and dummodo, a development from the use of the Subjunctive with dum in temporal clauses, 553 (compare the colloquial so long as my health is good, I don't care).
The Hortatory Subjunctive without a particle sometimes expresses a proviso:
sint Maecnts, nn deerunt Marns (Mart.Mart. 8.56.5 ), so there be Mcenases, Virgils will not be lacking.
The Subjunctive with ut (negative n) is sometimes used to denote a proviso, usually with ita in the main clause:
probta condici est, sed ita ut ille praesidia ddceret (Att. 7.14.1), the terms were approved, but only on condition that he should withdraw the garrisons.
NOTE.This is a development of the construction of Characteristic or Result.
For a clause of Characteristic expressing Proviso, see 535. d.
CLAUSES OF PURPOSE (FINAL CLAUSES)
The Subjunctive in the clause of Purpose is hortatory in origin, coming through a kind of indirect discourse construction (for which see 592). Thus, msit lgts qu dcerent means he sent ambassadors who should say, i.e. who were directed to say; in the direct orders the verb would be dcite, which would become dcant in the Indirect Discourse of narrative ( 588) or dcerent in the past (cf. hortatory subjunctive in past tenses, 439. b). The Subjunctive with ut and n is, in general, similar in origin.
A clause expressing purpose is called a Final Clause.
Final Clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut (ut), negative n (ut n), or by a Relative Pronoun or Adverb. [p. 341]
1. Pure Clauses of Purpose, with ut (ut) or n (ut n), express the purpose of the main verb in the form of a modifying clause:
ab artr abdxrunt Cincinntum, ut dicttor esset (Fin. 2.12), they brought Cincinnatus from the plough that he might be dictator.
ut sint auxili sus, subsistunt (B. C. 1.80), they halt in order to support (be an aid to) their own men.
n mlits oppidum inrumperent, ports obstruit (id. 1.27), he barricaded the gates, in order that the soldiers might not break into the town.
scls parr iubet, n quam faculttem dmittat (id. 1.28), he orders scalingladders to be got ready, in order not to let slip any opportunity.
ut n sit impne (Mil. 31), that it be not with impunity.
NOTE 1.Sometimes the conjunction has a correlative (ide, idcirc, e cnsili, etc.) in the main clause (cf. 561. a):
lgum idcirc serv sumus, ut lber smus (Clu 146), for this reason we are subject to the laws, that we may be free.
cpis trnsdxit e cnsili, ut castellum expgnret (cf. B. G. 2.9), he led the troops across with this designto storm the fort.
NOTE 2.Ut nn sometimes occurs in clauses of purpose when nn belongs to some particular word: as,ut plra nn dcam (Manil. 44), to avoid unnecessary talk.
2. Relative Clauses of Purpose are introduced by the relative pronoun qu or a relative adverb (ubi, unde, qu, etc.). The antecedent is expressed or implied in the main clause:
mittitur L. Dcidius Saxa qu loc ntram perspiciat (B. C. 1.66), Lucius Decidius Saxa is sent to examine the ground (who should examine, etc.).
scrbbat rtins qus ali dcerent (Brut. 206), he wrote speeches for other men to deliver.
e exstnct fore unde discerem nminem (Cat. M. 12), that when he was dead there would be nobody from whom (whence) I could learn.
huic n ubi cnsisteret quidem contr t locum relquist; (Quinct. 73), you have left him no ground even to make a stand against you.
habbam qu cnfugerem (Fam. 4.6.2), I had [a retreat] whither I might flee.
NOTE.In this construction qu=ut is (etc.), ubi=ut ibi, and so on ( 537. 2).
The ablative qu (= ut e) is used as a conjunction in final clauses which contain a comparative:
comprimere erum audciam, qu facilius cterrum anim frangerentur (Fam. 15.4.10), to repress their audacity, that the spirit of the others might be broken more easily (by which the more easily).
lbertte sus est, qu impnius dicx esset (Quinct. 11), he took advantage of liberty, that he might bluster with more impunity.
NOTE.Occasionally qu introduces a final clause that does not contain a comparative: as,L. Sulla exercitum, qu sibi fdum faceret, lxuris habuerat (Sall. Cat. 11), Lucius Sulla had treated the army luxuriously, in order to make it devoted to him.
For quminus (=ut e minus) after verbs of hindering, see 558. b. [p. 342]
The principal clause, on which a final clause depends, is often to be supplied from the context:
ac n longum sit ... iussimus (Cat. 3.10), and, not to be tedious, we ordered, etc. [Strictly, in order not to be tedious, I say we ordered.]
sed ut ad Dionsium redemus (Tusc. 5.63), but to return to Dionysius.
sed ut edem revertar, causa haec fuit timris (Fam. 6.7.3), but, to return to the same point, this was the cause of fear.
satis incnsdert fuit, n dcam audcis (Phil. 13.12), it was the act of one rash enough, not to say daring.
NOTE 1.By a similar ellipsis the Subjunctive is used with ndum (sometimes n), still less, not to mention that:
ndum salv esse possmus (Clu. 95), much less could we be safe.
ndum ist nn statim conqustr sint aliquid sceleris et flgit; (Leg. Agr. 2.97), far more will they hunt up at once some sort of crime and scandal.
ndum in mar et vi sit facile (Fam. 16.8), still less is it easy at sea and on a journey.
quippe secundae rs sapientium anims fatgant; n ill corrupts mribus victriae temperrent (Sall. Cat. 11), for prosperity overmasters the soul even of the wise; much less did they with their corrupt morals put any check on victory.
NOTE 2.With ndum the verb itself is often omitted: as,aptius hmnitt tuae quam tta Peloponnsus, ndum Patrae (Fam. 7.28.1), fitter for your refinement than all Peloponnesus, to say nothing of Patr.
For Substantive Clauses involving purpose, see 563-566.
The Purpose of an action is expressed in Latin in various ways; but never (except in idiomatic expressions and rarely in poetry) by the simple Infinitive as in English ( 460).
The sentence, they came to seek peace, may be rendered
(1) vnrunt ut pcem peterent. [Final clause with ut ( 531. 1).]
(2) vnrunt qu pcem peterent. [Final clause with Relative ( 531. 2).]
(3) [vnrunt ad petendum pcem.] Not found with transitive verbs ( 506, N.2), but cf. ad prendum sentu. [Gerund with ad ( 506).]
(4) vnrunt ad petendam pcem. [Gerundive with ad ( 506).]
(5) vnrunt pcem petend caus (grti). [Gen. of Gerund with caus ( 504. b).]
(6) vnrunt pcis petendae caus (grti). [Gen. of Gerundive with caus ( 504. b).]
(7) vnrunt pcem pettr. [Future participle ( 499. 2); in later writers.]
(8) vnrunt pcem pettum. [Supine in -um ( 509).]
These forms are not used indifferently, but
The usual way of expressing purpose is by ut (negative n), unless the purpose is closely connected with some one word, in which case a relative is more common: [p. 343]
lgts ad Dummnorgem mittunt, ut e dprectre Squans impetrrent (B. G. 1.9), they send envoys to Dumnorix, in order through his intercession to obtain (this favor) from the Sequani.
mlits msit ut es qu fgerant persequerentur (id. 5.10), he sent the soldiers to follow up those who had fled.
Cri praemittit equits qu prmum impetum sustineant (B. C. 2.26), Curio sends forward cavalry to withstand the first attack.
The Gerund and Gerundive constructions of purpose are usually limited to short expressions, where the literal translation, though not the English idiom, is nevertheless not harsh or strange.
The Supine is used to express purpose only with verbs of motion, and in a few idiomatic expressions ( 509).
The Future Participle used to express purpose is a late construction of inferior authority ( 499. 2).
For the poetical Infinitive of Purpose, see 460. c. For the Present Participle in a sense approaching that of purpose, see 490. 3.
CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC
The relative clause of Characteristic with the Subjunctive is a development peculiar to Latin. A relative clause in the Indicative merely states something as a fact which is true of the antecedent; a characteristic clause (in the Subjunctive) defines the antecedent as a person or thing of such a character that the statement made is true of him or it and of all others belonging to the same class. Thus,nn potest exercitum is continre impertor qu s ipse nn continet (indicative) means simply, that commander who does not (as a fact) restrain himself cannot restrain his army; whereas nn potest exercitum is continre impertor qu s ipse nn contineat (subjunctive) would mean, that commander who is not such a man as to restrain himself, etc., that is, who is not characterized by self-restraint.
This construction has its origin in the potential use of the subjunctive ( 445) Thus, in the example just given, qu s ipse nn contineat would mean literally, who would not restrain himself (in any supposable case), and this potential idea passes over easily into that of general quality or characteristic. The characterizing force is most easily felt when the antecedent is indefinite or general. But this usage is extended in Latin to cases which differ but slightly from statements of fact, as in some of the examples below.
The use of the Subjunctive to express Result comes from its use in Clauses of Characteristic. Thus, nn sum ita hebes ut haec dcam means literally, I am not dull in the manner (degree) in which I should say this, hence, I am not so dull as to say this. Since, then, the characteristic often appears in the form of a supposed result, the construction readily passes over into Pure Result, with no idea of characteristic; as,tantus in cri clmor factus est ut populus concurreret (Verr. 2.47), such an outcry was made in the senate-house that the people hurried together.
A Relative Clause with the Subjunctive is often used to indicate a characteristic of the antecedent, especially where the antecedent is otherwise undefined: [p. 344]
neque enim t is es qu nescis (Fam. 5.12.6), for you are not such a one as not to know. [Here is is equivalent to such, and is defined only by the relative clause that follows.]
multa dcunt quae vix intellegam (Fin. 4.2), they say many things which (such as) I hardly understand.
pc quae nihil habitra sit nsidirum semper est cnsulendum (Off. 1.35), we must always aim at a peace which shall have no plots.
A Relative Clause of Characteristic is used after general expressions of existence or non-existence, including questions which imply a negative.
So especially with sunt qu, there are [some] who; quis est qu, who is there who?
sunt qu discessum anim corpore putent esse mortem (Tusc. 1.18), there are some who think that the departure of soul from body constitutes death.
erant qu cnsrent (B. C. 2.30), there were some who were of the opinion, etc.
erant qu Helvidium miserrentur (Tac. Ann. 16.29), there were some who pitied Helvidius. [Cf. est cum (N.3, below).]
quis est qu id nn maxims efferat laudibus (Lael. 24), who is there that does not extol it with the highest praise?
nihil vide quod timeam (Fam. 9.16.3), I see nothing to fear.
nihil est quod adventum nostrum extimscs (Fam. 9.26.4), there is no reason why you should dread my coming.
unde agger comportr posset nihil erat reliquum (B. C. 2.15), there was nothing left from which an embankment could be got together.
NOTE 1.After general negatives like nm est qu, the Subjunctive is regular; after general affirmatives like sunt qu, it is the prevailing construction, but the Indicative sometimes occurs; after mult (nn nll, qudam) sunt qu, and similar expressions in which the antecedent is partially defined, the choice of mood depends on the shade of meaning which the writer wishes to express:
sunt bstiae quaedam in quibus inest aliquid simile virttis (Fin. 5.38), there are certain animals in which there is something like virtue.
But,invent mult sunt qu vtam prfundere pr patri part essent (Off. 1.84), many were found of such a character as to be ready to give their lives for their country.
NOTE 2.Characteristic clauses with sunt qu etc. are sometimes called Relative Clauses with an Indefinite Antecedent, but are to be carefully distinguished from the Indefinite Relative in protasis ( 520).
NOTE 3.The phrases est cum, fuit cum, etc. are used like est qu, sunt qu: as, ac fuit cum mihi quoque initium requiscend fore istum arbitrrer (De Or. 1.1), and there was a time when I thought a beginning of rest would be justifiable on my part.
A Relative Clause of Characteristic may follow nus and slus:
nl admrr prope rs est na slaque quae possit facere et servre betum (Hor. Ep. 1.6.1), to wonder at nothing is almost the sole and only thing that can make and keep one happy.
slus es cius in victri ceciderit nm nisi armtus (Deiot. 34), you are the only man in whose victory no one has fallen unless armed. [p. 345]
A clause of Result or Characteristic with quam ut, quam qu (rarely with quam alone), may be used after comparatives:
Canach sgna rigidira sunt quam ut imitentur vrittem (Brut. 70), the statues of Canachus are too stiff to represent nature (stiffer than that they should).
mirs arbors caedbant quam qus ferre mles posset (Liv. 33.5), they cut trees too large for a soldier to carry (larger than what a soldier could carry).
NOTE.This construction corresponds in sense to the English too ... to.
A relative clause of characteristic may express restriction or proviso (cf. 528. b):
quod sciam, so far as I know (lit. as to what I know).
Catnis rtins, qus quidem invnerim (Brut. 65), the speeches of Cato, at least such as I have discovered.
servus est nm, qu modo tolerbil condicine sit servittis (Cat. 4.16), there is not a slave, at least in any tolerable condition of slavery.
A Relative Clause of Characteristic may express cause or concession:
peccsse mihi videor qu t discesserim (Fam. 16.1), I seem to myself to have done wrong because I have left you. [Causal.]
virum simplicem qu ns nihil clet (Or. 230), O guileless man, who hides nothing from us! [Causal.]
egomet qu sr Graecs litters attigissem, tamen complrs Athns dis sum commortus (De Or. 1.82), I myself, though I began Greek literature late, yet, etc. (lit. [a man] who, etc.). [Concessive.]
NOTE 1.In this use the relative is equivalent to cum is etc. It is often preceded by ut, utpote, or quippe:
nec cnsul, ut qu id ipsum quaessset, moram certmin fcit (Liv. 42.7), nor did the consul delay the fight, since he had sought that very thing (as [being one] who had sought, etc.).
Lcius, frter ius, utpote qu peregr dpgnrit, familiam dcit (Phil. 5.30), Lucius, his brother, leads his household, inasmuch as he is a man who has fought it out abroad.
convvia cum patre nn inbat, quippe qui n in oppidum quidem nisi perrr venret (Rosc. Am. 52), he did not go to dinner parties with his father, since he did not even come to town except very rarely.
NOTE 2.The Relative of Cause or Concession is merely a variety of the Characteristic construction. The quality expressed by the Subjunctive is connected with the action of the main verb either as cause on account of which (SINCE) or as hindrance in spite of which (ALTHOUGH).
Dgnus, indgnus, aptus, idneus take a subjunctive clause with a relative (rarely ut). The negative is nn:
dgna in quibus labrrent (Tusc. 1.1), (things) worth spending their toil on (worthy on which they should, etc.).
dgna rs est ubi t nervs intends tus (Ter. Eun. 312), the affair is worthy of your stretching your sinews (worthy wherein you should, etc.). [p. 346]
idneus qu impetret (Manil. 57), fit to obtain.
indgn ut redimermur (Liv. 22.59.17), unworthy to be ransomed.
NOTE 1.This construction is sometimes explained as a relative clause of purpose, but it is more closely related to characteristic.
NOTE 2.With dgnus etc., the poets often use the Infinitive:
fns rv dare nmen idneus (Hor. Ep. 1.16.12), a source fit to give a name to a stream.
aets mollis et apta reg (Ov. A. A. 1.10), a time of life soft and easy to be guided.
vvere dgnus ers (Ov. M. 10.633), you were worthy to live.
CLAUSES OF RESULT (CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES)
The Subjunctive in Consecutive Clauses is a development of the use of that mood in Clauses of Characteristic (as explained in 534).
Clauses of Result take the Subjunctive introduced by ut, so that (negative, ut nn), or by a relative pronoun or relative adverb.
1. Pure Clauses of Result, with ut or ut nn, express the result of the main verb in the form of a modifying clause:
tanta vs probittis est ut eam in hoste dligmus (Lael. 29), so great is the power of goodness that we love it even in an enemy.
pgntur criter ad novissimum agmen, ade ut paene terga convertant (B. C. 1.80), there is sharp fighting in the rear, so (to such a degree) that they almost take flight.
multa rmor adfingbat, ut paene bellum cnfectum vidrtur (id. 1.53), rumor added many false reports, so that the war seemed almost ended.
2. Relative Clauses of Result are introduced by the relative pronoun qu or a relative adverb (ubi, unde, qu, etc.). The antecedent is expressed or implied in the main clause.
The Relative in this construction is equivalent to ut with the corre sponding demonstrative:qu = ut is (etc.), ubi = ut ibi, and so on:
nam est innocentia affecti tlis anim quae noceat nmin; (Tusc. 3.16), for innocence is such a quality of mind as to do harm to no one.
sunt aliae causae quae pln efficiant (Top. 59), there are other causes such as to bring to pass.
nlla est celerits quae possit cum anim celeritte contendere (Tusc. 1.43), there is no swiftness which can compare with the swiftness of the mind.
quis nvigvit qu nn s mortis percul committeret (Manil. 31), who went to sea who did not incur the peril of death?
NOTE 1.Since the relative clause of Result is a development from the relative clause of Characteristic ( 534), no sharp line can be drawn between the two constructions. In doubtful cases, it is better to attempt no distinction or to describe the clause as one of Characteristic.
NOTE 2.Clauses of Result are often introduced by such correlative words as tam, tlis, tantus, ita, sc, ade. sque e, which belong to the main clause. [p. 347]
A Negative Result is introduced by ut nn, ut nm, qu nn, etc., not by n:
mults gravibusque volneribus cnfectus ut iam s sustinre non posset (B. G. 2.25), used up with many severe wounds so that he could no longer stand.
tant v in Pomp equits impetum fcrunt ut erum nm cnsisteret (B. C. 3.93), they attacked Pompey's cavalry with such vigor that not one of them stood his ground.
nm est tam senex qu s annum nn putet posse vvere (Cat. M. 24), nobody is so old as not to think that he can live a year.
NOTE.When the result implies an effect intended (not a simple purpose), ut n or n is sometimes used as being less positive than ut nn:[librum] ita corrigs n mihi noceat (Caecina, Fam. 6.7.6), correct the book so that it may not hurt me.
Frequently a clause of result or characteristic is used in a restrictive sense, and so amounts to a Proviso (cf. 535. d):
hc ita est tile ut n pln inldmur ab accstribus (Rosc. Am. 55), this is so far useful that we are not utterly mocked by the accusers (i.e. useful only on this condition, that, etc.).
nihil autem est molestum quod nn dsders (Cat. M. 47), but nothing is troublesome which (= provided that) you do not miss.
The clause of result is sometimes expressed in English by the Infinitive with TO or SO AS TO or an equivalent:
tam long aberam ut nn vidrem, I was too far away to see (so far that I did not see; cf. 535. c).
NOTE.Result is never expressed by the Infinitive in Latin except by the poets in a few passages ( 461. a).
The constructions of Purpose and Result are precisely alike in the affirmative (except sometimes in tense sequence, 485. c); but, in the negative, Purpose takes n, Result ut nn etc.:
cstdtus est n effugeret, he was guarded in order that he MIGHT not escape.
cstdtus est ut nn effugeret, he was guarded so that he DID not escape.
So in negative Purpose clauses n quis, n quid, n llus, n qu, n quand, ncubi, etc. are almost always used; in negative Result clauses, ut nm, ut nihil, ut nllus, etc.:
(1) cernere n quis es, neu quis contingere posset (Aen. 1.413), that no one might see them, no one touch them. [Purpose.]
n quand lbers prscrptrum bona patria reddantur (Rosc. Am. 145), lest at some time the patrimony of the proscribed should be restored to their children.
ipse n qu inciderem, revert Formis (Att. 8.3.7), that I might not come upon him anywhere, I returned to Formi. [p. 348]
disposits explrtribus ncubi Rmn cpis trdcerent (B. G. 7.35), having stationed scouts here and there in order that the Romans might not lead their troops across anywhere.
(2) mult ita sunt imbcill sens ut nllum offic mnus exsequ possint (Cat. M. 35), many old men are so feeble that they cannot perform any duty to society. [Result.]
qu summum bonum sc nstituit ut nihil habeat cum virtte coninctum (Off. 1.5), who has so settled the highest good that it has nothing in common with virtue.
For clauses of Result or Characteristic with qun, see 559. For Substantive Clauses of Result, see 567-571.
CAUSAL CLAUSES
Causal Clauses take either the Indicative or the Subjunctive, according to their construction; the idea of cause being contained, not in the mood itself, but in the form of the argument (by implication), in an antecedent of causal meaning (like proptere), or in the connecting particles.
Quod is in origin the relative pronoun (stem quo-) used adverbially in the accusative neuter (cf. 214. d) and gradually sinking to the position of a colorless relative con junction (cf. English that and see 222). Its use as a causal particle is an early special development. Quia is perhaps an accusative plural neuter of the relative stem qui-, and seems to have developed its causal sense more distinctly than quod, and at an earlier period. It is used (very rarely) as an interrogative, why? (so in classical Latin with nam only), and may, like quand, have developed from an interrogative to a relative particle.
Quoniam (for quom iam) is also of relative origin (quom being a case-form of the pronominal stem quo-). It occurs in old Latin in the sense of when (cf. quom, cum), from which the causal meaning is derived (cf. cum causal). The Subjunctive with quod and quia depends on the principle of Informal Indirect Discourse ( 592).
Quand is probably the interrogative quam (how?) compounded with a form of the pronominal stem do- (cf. dum, d-nec). It originally denoted time (first interrogatively, then as a relative), and thus came to signify cause. Unlike quod and quia, it is not used to state a reason in informal indirect discourse and therefore is never followed by the Subjunctive.
The Causal Particles quod and quia take the Indicative, when the reason is given on the authority of the writer or speaker; the Subjunctive, when the reason is given on the authority of another:
1. Indicative:
cum tibi agam grtis quod m vvere cogist (Att. 3.3), when I may thank you that you have forced me to live.
cr igitur pcem nl? quia turpis est (Phil. 7.9), why then do I not wish for peace? Because it is disgraceful.
ita fit ut adsint proptere quod officium sequuntur, taceant autem quia periculum vtant (Rosc. Am. 1), so it happens that they attend because they follow duty, but are silent because they seek to avoid danger. [p. 349]
2. Subjunctive:
mihi grtulbre quod audsss m meam prstinam dgnittem obtinre (Fam. 4.14.1), you congratulated me because [as you said] you had heard that I had regained my former dignity.
noct ambulbat Themistocls quod somnum capere nn posset (Tusc. 4.44), Themistocles used to walk about at night because [as he said] he could not sleep.
mea mter rta est quia nn redierim (Pl. Cist. 101), my mother is angry because I did n't return.
NOTE 1.Quod introduces either a fact or a statement, and accordingly takes either the Indicative or the Subjunctive. Quia regularly introduces a fact; hence it rarely takes the Subjunctive. Quoniam, inasmuch as, since, when now, now that, has reference to motives, excuses, justifications, and the like and takes the Indicative.
NOTE 2.Under this head what the speaker himself thought under other circumstances may have the Subjunctive ( 592. 3. N.): as,ego laeta vsa sum quia soror vnisset (Pl. Mil. 387), I seemed (in my dream) glad because my sister had come.
So with quod even a verb of saying may be in the Subjunctive: as,rediit quod s obltum nesci quid dceret (Off. 1.40), he returned because he said he had forgotten something.
NOTE 3.Nn quod, nn quia, nn qu, introducing a reason expressly to deny it, take the Subjunctive; but the Indicative sometimes occurs when the statement is in itself true, though not the true reason. In the negative, nn qun (with the Subjunctive) may be used in nearly the same sense as nn quod nn. After a comparative, quam qu or quam quod is used:
pugils ingemscunt, nn quod doleant, sed quia profundend vce omne corpus intenditur (Tusc. 2.56), boxers groan, not because they are in pain, but because by giving vent to the voice the whole body is put in a state of tension.
nn quia rctior ad Alps via esset, sed crdns (Liv. 21.31.2), not because the route to the Alps was more direct, but believing, etc.
nn qun par virtte et voluntte ali fuerint, sed tantam causam nn haburunt (Phil. 7.6), not that there were not others of equal courage and good-will, but they had not so strong a reason.
haec amre magis impulsus scrbenda ad t putv, quam qu t arbitrrer monits et praecepts egre (Fam. 10.3.4), this I thought I ought to write to you, rather from the impulse of (prompted by) affection than because I thought that you needed advice and suggestion.
Quoniam and quand, since, introduce a reason given on the authority of the writer or speaker, and take the Indicative:
locus est m, quoniam ita Murna voluit, retrctandus (Mur. 54), I must review the point, since Murena has so wished.
quand ita vs, d bene vortant (Pl. Trin. 573), since you so wish, may the gods bless the undertaking.
quand ad mira nt sumus (Fin. 5.21), since we are born for greater things.
NOTE.The Subjunctive with quoniam is unclassical. Quand, since, in the causal sense, is mostly archaic or late. Quand, when, is used as interrogative, relative, and indefinite: as,quand? hodi, when? to-day; s quand, if ever. [p. 350]
Causal clauses introduced by quod, quia, quoniam, and quand take the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse, like any other dependent clause (see 580).
A Relative, when used to express cause, regularly takes the Subjunctive (see 535. e).
Cum causal takes the Subjunctive (see 549).
For Substantive Clauses with quod, see 572.
TEMPORAL CLAUSES
Temporal Clauses are introduced by particles which are almost all of relative origin. They are construed like other relative clauses, except where they have developed into special idiomatic constructions.
233
For list of Temporal Particles, see p. 138.
Temporal Clauses may be classified as follows:
I. Conditional Relative Clauses: ubi, ut, cum, quand, in Protasis ( 542).
II. Clauses with postquam, ubi, etc. (Indicative), ( 543).
III. Clauses with cum 1. Cum temporal ( 545-548). 2. Cum causal or concessive ( 549).
IV. Clauses with antequam and priusquam (Indicative or Subjunctive) ( 551).
V. Clauses with dum, dnec, and quoad (Indicative or Subjunctive) ( 552-556).
Conditional Relative Clauses
The particles ubi, ut, cum, quand, either alone or compounded with -cumque, may be used as Indefinite Relatives (in the sense of whenever), and have the constructions of Protasis (cf. 514):
cum id malum negs esse, capior (Tusc. 2.29), whenever you (the individual disputant) deny it to be an evil, I am misled. [Present general condition.]
quod profect cum m nlla vs cgeret, facere nn audrem (Phil. 5.51), which I would surely not venture to do, as long as no force compelled me. [Present, contrary to fact: cf. 517.]
cum vides es dolre nn frang, dbes exstimre, etc. (Tusc. 2.66), when you see that those are not broken by pain, you ought to infer, etc. [Present general condition: cf. 518. a.]
cum rosam vderat, tum incipere vr arbitrbtur (Verr. 5.27), whenever he saw a rose he thought spring had begun. [Past general condition: cf. 518. b.]
id ubi dxisset, hastam in fns erum mittbat (Liv. 1.32.13), when he had said this, he would cast the spear into their territories. [Past General Condition, repeated action: see 518. c.] [p. 351]
Temporal Clauses with postquam, ubi, etc.
The particles postquam (postequam), ubi, ut (ut prmum, ut semel), simul atque (simul ac, or simul alone), take the Indicative (usually in the perfect or the historical present):
mlits postquam victriam adept sunt, nihil reliqu victs fcre (Sall. Cat. 11), when the soldiers had won the victory, they left nothing to the vanquished.
postequam forum attigist, nihil fcist nisi, etc. (Fam. 15.16.3), since you came to the forum, you have done nothing except, etc.
ubi omns idem sentre intellxit, posterum diem pgnae cnstituit (B. G. 3.23), when he understood that all agreed (thought the same thing), he appointed the next day for the battle.
Catilna, ubi es convnisse videt, scdit (Sall. Cat. 20), when Catiline sees that they have come together, he retires.
Pompius ut equittum suum pulsum vdit, aci excessit (B. C. 3.94), when Pompey saw his cavalry beaten, he left the field.
ut semel Praee loquentia vecta est (Brut. 51), as soon as eloquence had set sail from the Pirus.
nostr simul in rid cnstitrunt, in hosts impetum fcrunt (B. G. 4.26), our men, as soon as they had taken a position on dry ground, made an attack on the enemy.
simul atque intrductus est, rem cnfcit (Clu. 40), as soon as he was brought in, he did the job.
These particles less commonly take the Imperfect or Pluperfect Indicative. The Imperfect denotes a past state of things; the Pluperfect, an action completed in past time:
postquam strct utrimque stbant, ducs in medium prcdunt (Liv. 1.23), when they stood in array on both sides, the generals advance into the midst.
P. fricnus postequam bis cnsul et cnsor fuerat (Caecil. 69), when Africanus had been (i.e. had the dignity of having been) twice consul and censor.
postquam id difficilius vsum est, neque facults perficiend dabtur, ad Pompium trnsirunt (B. C. 3.60), when this seemed too hard, and no means of effecting it were given, they passed over to Pompey.
post diem quntum quam iterum barbar male pgnverant [= vict sunt], lgt Bocch veniunt (Iug. 102), the fifth day after the barbarians were beaten the second time, envoys come from Bocchus.
haec iuventtem, ubi familirs ops dfcerant, ad facinora incendbant (Sall. Cat. 13), when their inherited resources had given out, etc.
ubi percula virtte prpulerant (id. 6), when they had dispelled the dangers by their valor.
For the use of ubi, ut, either alone or compounded with -cumque as Indefinite Relatives, see 542. [p. 352]
USES OF CUM
The conjunction cum (quom) is a case-form of the relative pronoun qu. It inherits from qu its subordinating force, and in general shares its constructions. But it was early specialized to a temporal meaning (cf. tum, dum), and its range of usage was therefore less wide than that of qu; it could not, for example, introduce clauses of purpose or of result.
With the Indicative, besides the simple expression of definite time (corresponding to simple relative clauses with the Indicative), it has a few special uses,conditional, explicative, cum inversumall easily derived from the temporal use.
With the Subjunctive, cum had a development parallel to that of the qu-clause of Characteristic,a development not less extensive and equally peculiar to Latin. From defining the time the cum-clause passed over to the description of the time by means of its attendant circumstances of cause or concession (cf. since, while).
In particular, cum with the Subjunctive was used in narrative (hence the past tenses, Imperfect and Pluperfect) as a descriptive clause of time. As, however, the present participle in Latin is restricted in its use and the perfect active participle is almost wholly lacking, the historical or narrative cum-clause came into extensive use to supply the deficiency. In classical writers the narrative cum-clause (with the Subjunctive) has pushed back the defining clause (with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Indicative) into comparative infrequency, and is itself freely used where the descriptive or characterizing force is scarcely perceptible (cf. the qu-clause of Characteristic, 534).
Cum Temporal
A temporal clause with cum, when, and some past tense of the Indicative dates or defines the time at which the action of the main verb occurred:
e [litu] regins drxit tum cum urbem condidit (Div. 1.30), he traced with it the quarters [of the sky] at the time he founded the city.
cum occditur Sex. Rscius, ibdem furunt serv; (Rosc. Am. 120), when Roscius was slain, the slaves were on the spot. [occditur is historical present.]
quem quidem cum ex urbe pellbam, hc prvidbam anim; (Cat. 3.16), when I was trying to force him (conative imperfect) from the city, I looked forward to this.
fulgents gladis hostium vidbant Deci cum in aciem erum inrubant (Tusc. 2.59), the Decii saw the flashing swords of the enemy when they rushed upon their line.
tum cum in Asi rs mgns permult mserant (Manil. 19), at that time, when many had lost great fortunes in Asia.
NOTE 1.This is the regular use with all tenses in early Latin, and at all times with the Perfect and the Historical Present (as with postquam etc.). With the Imperfect and Pluperfect the Indicative use is (in classical Latin) much less common than the Subjunctive use defined below ( 546).
NOTE 2.This construction must not be confused with that of cum, whenever, in General Conditions ( 542). [p. 353]
When the time of the main clause and that of the temporal clause are absolutely identical, cum takes the Indicative in the same tense as that of the main verb:
maxim sum laetiti adfectus cum audv cnsulem t factum esse (Fam. 15.7), I was very much pleased when I heard that you had been elected consul.
A temporal clause with cum and the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive describes the circumstances that accompanied or preceded the action of the main verb:
cum essem tisus in Tusculn, accp tus litters (Fam. 9.18.1), when I was taking my ease in my house at Tusculum, I received your letter.
cum servl bell premertur (Manil. 30), when she (Italy) was under the load of the Servile War.
cum id nntitum esset, mtrat (B. G. 1.7), when this had been reported, he made (makes) haste.
cum ad Cybistra qunque dis essem mortus, rgem Ariobarznem nsidis lberv; (Fam. 15.4.6), after remaining at Cybistra for five days, I freed King Ariobarzanes from plots.
is cum ad m Lodicam vnisset mcumque ego eum vellem, repente percussus est atrcissims litters (id. 9.25.3), when he had come to me at Laodicea and I wished him to remain with me, he was suddenly, etc.
NOTE 1.This construction is very common in narrative, and cum in this use is often called narrative cum.
NOTE 2.Cum with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Indicative does not (like cum with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive) describe the time by its circumstances; it defines the time of the main verb by denoting a coxistent state of things (Imperfect Indicative) or a result attained when the action of the main verb took place (Pluperfect). Thus the construction is precisely that of postquam etc. ( 543. a).
NOTE 3.The distinction between the uses defined in 545, 546, may be illustrated by the following examples: (1) He had a fever when he was in Spain (Shakspere). Here the when-clause defines the time when Csar had the fever,namely, in the year of his Spanish campaign (B.C. 49). In Latin we should use cum with the Imperfect Indicative. (2) Columbus discovered America when he was seeking a new route to India; here the when-clause does not define or date the time of the discovery; it merely describes the circumstances under which America was discovered,namely, in the course of a voyage undertaken for another purpose. In Latin we should use the Imperfect Subjunctive.
NOTE 4.The distinction explained in Note 3 is unknown to early Latin. In Plautus quom always has the Indicative unless the Subjunctive is required for some other reason.
When the principal action is expressed in the form of a temporal clause with cum, and the definition of the time becomes the main clause, cum takes the Indicative.
Here the logical relations of the two clauses are inverted; hence cum is in this use called cum inversum: [p. 354]
dis nndum decem intercesserant, cum ille alter flius nfns nectur (Clu. 28), ten days had not yet passed, when the other infant son was killed. [Instead of when ten days had not yet passed, etc.]
iamque lx apprbat cum prcdit ad mlits (Q. C. 7.8.3), and day was already dawning when he appears before the soldiers.
hc facere noct apparbant, cum mtrs familiae repente in pblicum prcurrrunt (B. G. 7.26), they were preparing to do this by night, when the women suddenly ran out into the streets.
Present time with cum temporal is denoted by the Present Indicative; future time, by the Future or Future Perfect Indicative:
incidunt tempora, cum ea, quae maxim videntur dgna esse ist homine, funt contrria (Off. 1.31), times occur when those things which seem especially worthy of the upright man, become the opposite.
nn dubitb dare operam ut t videam, cum id satis commod facere poter (Fam. 13.1), I shall not hesitate to take pains to see you, when I can do it conveniently.
longum illud tempus cum nn er (Att. 12.18), that long time when I shall be no more.
cum vneris, cgnscs (Fam. 5.7.3), when you come (shall have come), you will find out.
Cum, whenever, takes the construction of a relative clause in a general condition (see 542).
For present time, either the Present or the Perfect Indicative is used; for past time, regularly the Pluperfect Indicative.
For est cum etc., see 535. a. N.3.
Cum Causal or Concessive
Cum causal or concessive takes the Subjunctive:
id difficile nn est, cum tantum equitt valemus (B. C. 3.86), this is not difficult since we are so strong in cavalry. [Causal.]
cum slitd nsidirum et mets plna sit, rati ipsa monet amcitis comparre (Fin. 1.66), since solitude is full of treachery and fear, reason itself prompts us to contract friendships. [Causal.]
cum prm rdins concidissent, tamen cerrim reliqu resistbant (B. G. 7.62), though the first ranks had fallen, still the others resisted vigorously. [Concessive.]
brev spati legins numer hominum explverat, cum initi nn amplius dubus mlibus habuisset (Sall. Cat. 56), in a short time he had filled out the legions with their complement of men, though at the start he had not had more than two thousand. [Concessive.] [p. 355]
Cum causal may usually be translated by since; cum concessive by although or while; either, occasionally, by when.
NOTE 1.Cum in these uses is often emphasized by ut, utpote, quippe, praesertim; as,nec reprehend: quippe cum ipse istam reprehnsinem nn fgerim (Att. 10.3A), I find no fault; since I myself did not escape that blame.
NOTE 2.These causal and concessive uses of cum are of relative origin and are parallel to qu causal and concessive ( 535. e). The attendant circumstances are regarded as the cause of the action, or as tending to hinder it.
NOTE 3.In early Latin cum (quom) causal and concessive usually takes the Indicative: as,quom tua rs distrahitur, utinam videam (Pl. Trin. 617), since your property is being torn in pieces, O that I may see, etc.
Cum with the Indicative frequently introduces an explanatory statement, and is sometimes equivalent to quod, on the ground that:
cum tacent, clmant (Cat. 1.21), when they are silent, they cry out (i.e. their silence is an emphatic expression of their sentiments).
grtulor tibi cum tantum vals apud Dolbellam (Fam. 9.14.3), I congratulate you that you are so strong with Dolabella.
NOTE.This is merely a special use of cum temporal expressing coincident time ( 545. a).
Cum ... tum, signifying both ... and, usually takes the Indicative; but when cum approaches the sense of while or though, the Subjunctive is used ( 549):
cum multa nn prob, tum illud in prms (Fin. 1.18), while there are many things I do not approve, there is this in chief. [Indicative.]
cum difficile est, tum n aequum quidem (Lael. 26), not only is it difficult but even unjust.
cum rs tta ficta sit puerliter, tum n efficit quidem quod vult (Fin. 1.19), while the whole thing is childishly got up, he does not even make his point (accomplish what he wishes). [Subjunctive; approaching cum causal.]
Antequam and priusquam, before, introduce Clauses of Time which resemble those with cum temporal in their constructions. Priusquam consists of two parts (often written separately and sometimes separated by other words), the comparative adverb prius, sooner (before), which really modifies the main verb, and the relative particle quam, than, which introduces the subordinate clause. The latter is therefore a relative clause, and takes the Indicative or the Subjunctive (like other relative clauses) according to the sense intended. The Subjunctive with priusquam is related to that of purpose ( 529) and is sometimes called the Anticipatory or Prospective Subjunctive. Antequam, like priusquam, consists of two words, the first of which is the adverb ante, before, modifying the main verb. Its constructions are the same as those of priusquam, but the latter is commoner in classic prose.
Antequam and priusquam take sometimes the Indicative sometimes the Subjunctive. [p. 356]
With antequam or priusquam the Perfect Indicative states a fact in past time:
antequam tus lg litters, hominem re cupibam (Att. 2.7.2), before I read your letter, I wished the man to go.
neque ante dmsit eum quam fidem dedit adulscns (Liv. 39.10), and she did not let the young man go till he pledged his faith.
neque prius fugere dstitrunt quam ad flmen pervnrunt (B. G. 1.53), nor did they stop running until they reached the river.
NOTE.The Perfect Indicative in this construction is regular when the main clause is negative and the main verb is in an historical tense. The Imperfect Indicative is rare; the Pluperfect Indicative, very rare. The Perfect Subjunctive is rare and ante-classical, except in Indirect Discourse.
With antequam or priusquam the Imperfect Subjunctive is common when the subordinate verb implies purpose or expectancy in past time, or when the action that it denotes did not take place:
ante pgnr coeptum est quam satis nstruertur acis (Liv. 22.4.7), the fight was begun before the line could be properly formed.
priusquam t suum sibi vnders, ipse possdit (Phil. 2.96), before you could sell him his own property, he took possession of it himself.
priusquam tlum abic posset aut nostr propius accderent, omnis Vr acis terga vertit (B. C. 2.34), before a weapon could be thrown or our men approached nearer, the whole line about Varus took flight.
NOTE 1.The Pluperfect Subjunctive is rare, except in Indirect Discourse by sequence of tenses for the Future Perfect Indicative ( 484. c): as,antequam homins nefri d me advent audre potuissent, in Macedoniam perrx (Planc. 98), before those evil men could learn of my coming, I arrived in Macedonia.
NOTE 2.After an historical present the Present Subjunctive is used instead of the Imperfect: as,neque ab e prius Domitin mlits discdunt quam in cnspectum Caesaris ddctur (B. C. 1.22), and the soldiers of Domitius did (do) not leave him until he was (is) conducted into Csar's presence. So, rarely, the Perfect Subjunctive (as B. G. 3.18).
Antequam and priusquam, when referring to future time, take the Present or Future Perfect Indicative; rarely the Present Subjunctive:
priusquam d cters rbus responde, d amciti pauca dcam (Phil. 2.3), before I reply to the rest, I will say a little about friendship.
nn dfatgbor antequam illrum ancipits vis percper (De Or. 3.145), I shall not weary till I have traced out their doubtful ways.
antequam veniat litters mittet (Leg. Agr. 2.53), before he comes, he will send a letter.
NOTE 1.The Future Indicative is very rare.
NOTE 2.In a few cases the Subjunctive of present general condition is found with antequam and priusquam (cf. 518. a): as,in omnibus negtis priusquam aggredire, adhibenda est praeparti dligns (Off. 1.73), in all undertakings, before you proceed to action, careful preparation must be used. [p. 357]
As an adverb meaning for a time, awhile, dum is found in old Latin, chiefly as an enclitic (cf. vixdum, nndum). Its use as a conjunction comes either through correlation (cf. cum ... tum, s ... sc) or through substitution for a conjunction, as in the English the moment I saw it, I understood. Quoad is a compound of the relative qu, up to which point, with ad. The origin and early history of dnec are unknown.
Dum and quoad, until, take the Present or Imperfect Subjunctive in temporal clauses implying intention or expectancy:
exspects fortasse dum dcat (Tusc. 2.17), you are waiting perhaps for him to say (until he say). [Dum is especially common after exspect.]
dum reliquae nvs convenrent, ad hram nnam exspectvit (B. G. 4.23), he waited till the ninth hour for the rest of the ships to join him.
comitia dlta [sunt] dum lx ferrtur (Att. 4.17.3), the election was postponed until a law should be passed.
an id exspectmus, quoad n vestgium quidem Asiae cvittum atque urbium relinqutur (Phil. 11.25), shall we wait for this until not a trace is left of the states and cities of Asia?
Epamnnds exercbtur plrimum luctand ad eum fnem quoad stns complect posset atque contendere (Nep. Epam. 2), Epaminondas trained himself in wrestling so far as to be able (until he should be able) to grapple standing and fight (in that way).
NOTE 1.Dnec is similarly used in poetry and later Latin: as,et dxit long dnec curvta corent inter s capita (Aen. 11.860), and drew it (the bow) until the ourved tips touched each other.
NOTE 2.Dum, until, may be used with the Present or Future Perfect Indicative to state a future fact when there is no idea of intention or expectancy; but this construction is rare in classic prose. The Future is also found in early Latin. Dnec, until, is similarly used, in poetry and early Latin, with the Present and Future Perfect Indicative, rarely with the Future:
ego in Arcn opperior dum ista cgnsc (Att. 10.3), I am waiting in the villa at Arc until I find this out. [This is really dum, while.]
mihi sque crae erit quid ags, dum quid geris scier (Fam. 12.19.3), I shall always feel anxious as to what you are doing, until I actually know (shall have known) what you have done.
dlicta mirum lus dnec templa refceris (Hor. Od. 3.6.1), you shall suffer for the sins of your ancestors until you rebuild the temples.
ter centum rgnbitur anns, dnec geminam part dabit lia prlem (Aen. 1.272), sway shall be held for thrice a hundred years, until Ilia shall give birth to twin offspring.
Dnec and quoad, until, with the Perfect Indicative denote an actual fact in past time:
dnec rediit silentium fuit (Liv. 23.31.9), there was silence until he returned.
sque e timu dnec ad riciends idics vnimus (Verr. 2.1.17), I was anxious until the moment when we came to challenge the jurors.
Rmae furunt quoad L. Metellus in prvinciam profectus est (id. 2.62), they remained at Rome until Lucius Metellus set out for the province. [p. 358]
NOTE.Dum, until, with the Perfect Indicative is rare: as,mnsit in condicine sque ad eum fnem dum idics riect sunt (Verr. 1.16), he remained true to the agreement until the jurors were challenged.
Dum, dnec, and quoad, as long as, take the Indicative:
dum anima est, sps esse dcitur (Att. 9.10.3), as long as there is life, there is said to be hope.
dum praesidia lla furunt, in Sullae praesidis fuit (Rosc. Am. 126), so long as there were any garrisons, he was in the garrisons of Sulla.
dum longius mntine aberant Gall, pls multitdine tlrum prficibant (B. G. 7.82), so long as the Gauls were at a distance from the fortifications, they had the advantage because of their missiles.
dnec grtus eram tib, Persrum vigu rge betior (Hor. Od. 3.9.1), as long as I enjoyed thy favor, I flourished happier than the king of the Persians.
quoad potuit fortissim restitit (B. G. 4.12), he resisted bravely as long as he could.
NOTE 1.Dnec in this use is confined to poetry and later writers.
NOTE 2.Quam di, as long as, takes the Indicative only: as,s oppid tam di tenuit quam di in prvinci Parth furunt (Fam. 12.19.2), he kept himself within the town as long as the Parthians were in the province.
Dum, while, regularly takes the Present Indicative to denote continued action in past time.
In translating, the English Imperfect must generally be used:
dum haec geruntur, Caesar nntitum est (B. G. 1.46), while this was going on, a message was brought to Csar.
haec dum aguntur, intere Cleomens iam ad Elr ltus pervnerat (Verr. 5.91), while this was going on, Cleomenes meanwhile had come down to the coast at Elorum.
hc dum nrrat, forte audv; (Ter. Haut. 272), I happened to hear this while she was telling it.
NOTE.This construction is a special use of the Historical Present ( 469).
A past tense with dum (usually so long as) makes the time emphatic by contrast; but a few irregular cases of dum with a past tense occur where no contrast is intended:
nec enim dum eram vbscum, animum meum vidbtis (Cat. M. 79), for while I was with you, you could not see my soul. [Here the time when he was alive is contrasted with that after his death.]
corta est pgna, pr dum cnstbant rdins (Liv. 22.47), a conflict began, well matched as long as the ranks stood firm.
But,dum oculs hostium certmen verterat (id. 32.24), while the struggle kept the eyes of the enemy turned away.
dum num adscendere gradum cntus est, vnit in perculum (Mur. 55), while he attempted to climb one step [in rank] he fell into danger. [p. 359]
NOTE.In later writers, dum sometimes takes the Subjunctive when the classical usage would require the Indicative, and dnec, until, is freely used in this manner (especially by Tacitus):
dum ea in Samni gererentur, in Etruri interim bellum ingns conctur (Liv. 10.18), while this was being done in Samnium, meanwhile a great war was stirred up in Etruria.
illa quidem dum t fugeret, hydrum nn vdit (Georg. 4.457), while she was fleeing from you she did not see the serpent.
dum per vcs dportrtur, condormibat (Suet. Aug. 78), while he was being carried through the streets he used to fall dead asleep.
Rhnus servat nmen et violentiam curss (qu Germniam praevehitur) dnec cean miscetur (Tac. Ann. 2.6), the Rhine keeps its name and rapid course (where it borders Germany) until it mingles with the ocean.
temporibusque August dcends nn dfure decra ingenia dnec glscente adltine dterrrentur (id. 1.1), for describing the times of Augustus there was no lack of talent until it was frightened away by the increasing servility of the age.
For dum, provided that, see 528.
CLAUSES WITH QUN AND QUMINUS
The original meaning of qun is how not? why not? (qu-n), and when used with the Indicative or (rarely) with the Subjunctive it regularly implies a general negative. Thus, qun ego hc rogem? why should n't I ask this? implies that there is no reason for not asking. The implied negative was then expressed in a main clause, like nlla causa est or fier nn potest. Hence come the various dependent constructions introduced by qun.
Quminus is really a phrase (qu minus), and the dependent constructions which it introduces have their origin in the relative clause of purpose with qu and a comparative (see 531. a).
A subjunctive clause with qun is used after verbs and other expressions of hindering, resisting, refusing, doubting, delaying, and the like, when these are negatived, either expressly or by implication:
nn hmna lla neque dvna obstant qun socis amcs trahant exscindant (Sall. Ep. Mith. 17), no human or divine laws prevent them from taking captive and exterminating their friendly allies.
ut n Suessins quidem dterrre potuerint qun cum hs cnsentrent (B. G. 2.3), that they were unable to hinder even the Suessiones from making common cause with them.
nn posse mlits continr qun in urbem inrumperent (B. C. 2.12), that the soldiers could not be restrained from bursting into the city.
nn recsat qun idics (Deiot. 43), he does not object to your judging.
neque recsre qun arms contendant (B. G. 4.7), and that they did not refuse to fight.
praeterre nn potu qun scrberem ad t; (Caesar ap. Cic. Att. 9.6A), I could not neglect to write to you. [p. 360]
Trver ttus hiemis nllum tempus intermsrunt qun lgts mitterent (B. G. 5.55), the Treveri let no part of the winter pass without sending ambassadors. [Cf. B. G. 5.53; B. C. 1.78.]
nn cnctandum exstimvit qun pgn dcertret (B. G. 3.23), he thought he ought not to delay risking a decisive battle.
paulum fuit qun Vrum interficeret (B. C. 2.35), he just missed killing Varus (it lacked little but that he should kill).
neque multum fuit qun castrs expellerentur (id. 2.35), they came near being driven out of the camp.
facere nn possum qun cotdi ad t mittam (Att. 12.27.2), I cannot help sending to you every day.
fier nll mod poterat qun Cleomen parcertur (Verr. 5.104), it was out of the question that Cleomenes should not be spared.
ut effic nn possit qun es derim (Phil. 11.36), so that nothing can prevent my hating them.
Qun is especially common with nn dubit, I do not doubt, nn est dubium, there is no doubt, and similar expressions:
nn dubitbat qun e crdermus (Att. 6.2.3), he did not doubt that we believed him.
illud cav dubits qun ego omnia faciam (Fam. 5.20.6), do not doubt that I will do all.
quis gnrat qun tria Graecrum genera sint (Flacc. 64), who is ignorant that there are three races of Greeks?
nn erat dubium qun Helvti plrimum possent (cf. B. G. 1.3), there was no doubt that the Helvetians were most powerful.
neque Caesarem fefellit qun ab is cohortibus initium victriae orrtur (B. C. 3.94), and it did not escape Csar's notice that the beginning of the victory came from those cohorts.
NOTE 1.Dubit without a negative is regularly followed by an Indirect Question; so sometimes nn dubit and the like:
nn nll dubitant an per Sardiniam veniat (Fam. 9.7), some doubt whether he is coming through Sardinia.
dubitte, s potestis, qu sit Sex. Rscius occsus (Rosc. Am. 78), doubt, if you can, by whom Sextus Roscius was murdered.
dubitbam t hs ipss litters esssne acceptrus (Att. 15.9), I doubt whether you will receive this very letter. [Epistolary Imperfect ( 479).]
qulis sit futrus, n vs quidem dubittis (B. C. 2.32), and what it (the outcome) will be, you yourselves do not doubt.
nn dubit quid sentiant (Fam. 15.9), I do not doubt what they think.
dubium ill nn erat quid futrum esset (id. 8.8.1), it was not doubtful to him what was going to happen.
NOTE 2.Nn dubit in the sense of I do not hesitate commonly takes the Infinitive, but sometimes qun with the Subjunctive:
nec dubitre illum appellre sapientem (Lael. 1), and not to hesitate to call him a sage.
dubitandum nn exstim vit qun proflcscertur (B. G. 2.2), he did not think he ought to hesitate to set out.
quid dubits t temporis opportnitte (B. C. 2.34), why do you hesitate to take advantage of the favorable moment? [A question implying a negative.] [p. 361]
Verbs of hindering and refusing often take the subjunctive with n or quminus (= ut e minus), especially when the verb is not negatived:
plra n dcam tuae m lacrimae impediunt (Planc. 104), your tears preveni me from speaking further.
nec aets impedit quminus agr colend studia tenemus (Cat. M. 60), nor does age prevent us from retaining an interest in tilling the soil.
nihil impedit quminus id facere possmus (Fin. 1.33), nothing hinders us from being able to do that.
obstitist n trnsre cpiae possent (Verr. 5.5), you opposed the passage of the troops (opposed lest the troops should cross).
NOTE.Some verbs of hindering may take the Infinitive:
nihil obest dcere (Fam. 9.13.4), there is nothing to prevent my saying it.
prohibet accdere (Caec. 46), prevents him from approaching.
A clause of Result or Characteristic may be introduced <*> qun after a general negative, where qun is equivalent to qu (quae, quod) nn:
1. Clauses of Result:
nm est tam fortis qun [= qu nn] re novitte perturbtur (B. G. 6.39), no one is so brave as not to be disturbed by the unexpected occurrence.
nm erat ade tardus qun putret (B. C. 1.69), no one was so slothful as not to think, etc.
quis est tam dmns qun sentiat (Balb. 43), who is so senseless as not to think, etc.?
nl tam difficilest qun quaerend investgr possiet (Ter. Haut. 675), nothing's so hard but search will find it out (Herrick).
2. Clauses of Characteristic:
nm nostrum est qun [= qu nn] sciat (Rosc. Am. 55), there is no one of us who does not know.
nm fuit mlitum qun vulnerrtur (B. C. 3.53), there was not one of the soldiers who was not wounded.
ecquis fuit qun lacrimret (Verr. 5.121), was there any one who did not shed tears?
quis est qun intellegat (Fin. 5.64), who is there who does not understand?
hrum nihil est qun [= quod nn] intereat (N. D. 3.30), there is none of these (elements) which does not perish.
nihil est illrum qun [= quod nn] ego ill dxerim (Pl. Bac. 1012), there is nothing of this that I have not told him.
NOTE.Qun sometimes introduces a pure clause of result with the sense of ut nn: as,numquam tam male est Siculs qun aliquid fact et commod dcant (Verr. 4.95), things are never so bad with the Sicilians but that they have something pleasant or witty to say.
For qun in independent constructions. see 440 <*> [p. 362]
SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES
[560] A clause which is used as a noun may be called a Substantive Clause, as certain relative clauses are sometimes called adjective clauses. But in practice the term is restricted to clauses which represent a nominative or an accusative case, the clauses which stand for an ablative being sometimes called adverbial clauses.
Even with this limitation the term is not quite precise (see p. 367, footnote 1). The fact is rather that the clause and the leading verb are mutually complementary; each reinforces the other. The simplest and probably the earliest form of such sentences is to be found in the paratactic use (see 268) of two verbs like vol abes, dcmus cnse, adeam optimum est. From such verbs the usage spread by analogy to other verbs (see lists on pp. 363, 367, footnotes), and the complementary relation of the clause to the verb came to resemble the complementary force of the accusative, especially the accusative of cognate meaning ( 390).
[561] A clause used as a noun is called a Substantive Clause.
[a]
A Substantive Clause may be used as the Subject or Object of a verb, as an Appositive, or as a Predicate Nominative or Accusative.
NOTE 1.Many ideas which in English take the form of an abstract noun may be rendered by a substantive clause in Latin. Thus, he demanded an investigation may be postulbat ut quaesti habrtur. The common English expression for with the infinitive also corresponds to a Latin substantive clause: as,it remains for me to speak of the piratic war, reliquum est ut d bell dcam prtic.
NOTE 2.When a Substantive Clause is used as subject, the verb to which it is subject is called impersonal, and the sign of the construction in English is commonly the so-called expletive IT.
[562] Substantive Clauses are classified as follows:
1. Subjunctive Clauses (ut, n, ut nn, etc.). a. Of purpose (command, wish, fear) ( 563, 564). b. Of result (happen, effect, etc.) ( 568).
2. Indicative Clauses with quod: Fact, Specification, Feeling ( 572).
3. Indirect Questions: Subjunctive, introduced by an Interrogative Word ( 573-576).
4. Infinitive Clauses a. With verbs of ordering, wishing, etc. ( 563). b. Indirect Discourse ( 579 ff.).
NOTE.The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is not strictly a clause, but in Latin it has undergone so extensive a development that it may be so classed. The uses of the Infinitive Clause are of two kinds: (1) in constructions in which it replaces a subjunctive clause with ut etc.; (2) in the Indirect Discourse. The first class will be discussed in connection with the appropriate subjunctive constructions ( 563); for Indirect Discourse, see 579 ff.
Substantive Clauses of Purpose
Substantive Clauses of Purpose with ut (negative n) are used as the object of verbs denoting an action directed toward the future. [p. 363]
Such are, verbs meaning to admonish, ask, bargain, command, decree, determine, permit, persuade, resolve, urge, and wish:
234
monet ut omns suspcins vtet (B. G. 1.20), he warns him to avoid all suspicion.
horttur es n anim dficiant (B. C. 1.19), he urges them not to lose heart.
t rog atque r ut eum iuvs (Fam. 13.66), I beg and pray you to aid him.
hs ut conqurerent impervit (B. G. 1.28), he ordered them to search.
persudet Castic ut rgnum occupret (id. 1.3), he persuades Casticus to usurp royal power.
sus impervit n quod omnn tlum ricerent (id. 1.46), he ordered his men not to throw back any weapon at all.
NOTE.With any verb of these classes the poets may use the Infinitive instead of an object clause:
hortmur fr (Aen. 2.74), we urge [him] to speak.
n quaere docr (id. 6.614), seek not to be told.
temptat praevertere (id. 1.721), she attempts to turn, etc.
For the Subjunctive without ut with verbs of commanding, see 565. a.
Iube, order, and vet, forbid, take the Infinitive with Subject Accusative:
Labinum iugum montis ascendere iubet (B. G. 1.21), he orders Labienus to ascend the ridge of the hill.
lbers ad s addc iussit (id. 2.5), he ordered the children to be brought to him.
ab opere lgts discdere vetuerat (id. 2.20), he had forbidden the lieutenants to leave the work.
veture [bona] redd (Liv. 2.5), they forbade the return of the goods (that the goods be returned).
NOTE.Some other verbs of commanding etc. occasionally take the Infinitive:
pontem imperant fier (B. C. 1.61), they order a bridge to be built.
rs monet cavre (Sall. Cat. 52.3), the occasion warns us to be on our guard.
Verbs of wishing take either the Infinitive or the Subjunctive.
With vol (nl, ml) and cupi the Infinitive is commoner, and the subject of the infinitive is rarely expressed when it would be the same as that of the main verb.
With other verbs of wishing the Subjunctive is commoner when the subject changes, the Infinitive when it remains the same.
1. Subject of dependent verb same as that of the verb of wishing:
augur fier volu; (Fam. 15.4.13), I wished to be made augur.
cupi vigiliam meam tibi trdere (id. 11.24), I am eager to hand over my watch to you. [p. 364]
idicem m esse, nn doctrem vol; (Or. 117), I wish to be a judge, not a teacher.
m Caesaris mlitem dc volu; (B. C. 2.32.13), I wished to be called a soldier of Csar.
cupi m esse clmentem (Cat. 1.4), I desire to be merciful. [But regularly, cupi esse clmns (see 457).]
omns homins, qu ss student praestre cters animlibus (Sall. Cat. 1), all men who wish to excel other living creatures.
2. Subject of dependent verb different from that of the verb of wishing:
vol t scre (Fam. 9.24.1), I wish you to know.
vim volumus exstingu (Sest. 92), we wish violence to be put down.
t tu fru virtte cupimus (Brut. 331), we wish you to reap the fruits of your virtue.
cupi ut impetret (Pl. Capt. 102), I wish he may get it.
numquam optb ut auditis (Cat. 2.15), I will never desire that you shall hear.
For vol and its compounds with the Subjunctive without ut, see 565.
Verbs of permitting take either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive. Patior takes regularly the Infinitive with Subject Accusative; so often sin:
permsit ut faceret (De Or. 2.366), permitted him to make.
concd tibi ut ea praeteres (Rosc. Am. 54), I allow you to pass by these matters.
taberncula statu passus nn est (B. C. 1.81), he did not allow tents to be pitched.
vnum importr nn sinunt (B. G. 4.2), they do not allow wine to be imported.
Verbs of determining, decreeing, resolving, bargaining, take either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive:
cnstituerant ut L. Bstia querertur (Sall. Cat. 43), they had determined that Lucius Bestia should complain.
proeli supersedre statuit (B. G. 2.8), he determined to refuse battle.
d bons rgis quae redd cnsuerant (Liv. 2.5), about the king's goods, which they had decreed should be restored.
dcernit ut cnsuls dlctum habeant (Sall. Cat. 34), decrees that the consuls shall hold a levy.
dict n quis iniuss pgnret (Liv. 5.19), having commanded that none should fight without orders.
NOTE 1.Different verbs of these classes with the same meaning vary in their construction (see the Lexicon). For verbs of bargaining etc. with the Gerundive, see 500. 4.
NOTE 2.Verbs of decreeing and voting often take the Infinitive of the Second Periphrastic conjugation:Rgulus captvs reddends [esse] nn cnsuit (Off. 1.39), Regulus voted that the captives should not be returned. [He said, in giving his formal opinion: captv nn reddend sunt.] [p. 365]
Verbs of caution and effort take the Subjunctive with ut. But cnor, try, commonly takes the Complementary Infinitive:
cr ut quam prmum intellegam (Fam. 13.10.4), let me know as soon as possible (take care that I may understand).
dant operam ut habeant (Sall. Cat. 41), they take pains to have (give their attention that, etc.).
impellere ut Caesar nminrtur (id. 49), to induce them to name Csar (that Csar should be named).
cntus est Caesar reficere ponts (B. C. 1.50), Csar tried to rebuild the bridges.
NOTE 1.Cnor s also occurs (as B. G. 1.8); cf. mror s etc., 572. b. N.
NOTE 2.Ut n occurs occasionally with verbs of caution and effort (cf. 531): cr et prvid ut nquid e dsit (Att. 11.3.3), take care and see that he lacks nothing.
For the Subjunctive with qun and quminus with verbs of hindering etc., see 558.
Verbs of fearing take the Subjunctive, with n affirmative and n nn or ut negative.
In this use n is commonly to be translated by that, ut and n nn by that not:
time n Verrs fcerit (Verr. 5.3), I fear that Verres has done, etc.
n animum offenderet verbtur (B. G. 1.19), he feared that he should hurt the feelings, etc.
n exhrdrtur veritus est (Rosc. Am. 58), he feared that he should be disinherited.
rtor metu n languscat senectte (Cat. M. 28), I fear the orator grows feeble from old age.
vereor ut tibi possim concdere (De Or. 1.35), I fear that I cannot grant you.
haud sn perculum est n nn mortem optandam putet (Tusc. 5.118), there is no danger that he will not think death desirable.
NOTE.The subjunctive in n-clauses after a verb of fearing is optative in origin. To an independent n-sentence, as n accidat, may it not happen, a verb may be prefixed (cf. 560), making a complex sentence. Thus, vid n accidat; r n accidat; cavet n accidat; when the prefixed verb is one of fearing, time n accidat becomes let it not happen, but I fear that it may. The origin of the ut-clause is similar.
Vol and its compounds, the impersonals licet and oportet, and the imperatives dc and fac often take the Subjunctive without ut:
vol ams (Att. 2.10), I wish you to love.
quam vellem m invtsss (Fam. 10.28.1), how I wish you had invited me!
mllem Cerberum metuers (Tusc. 1.12), I had rather you feared Cerberus.
sint enim oportet (id. 1.12), for they must exist.
quermur licet (Caec. 41), we are allowed to complain.
fac dligs (Att. 3.13.2), do love! [A periphrasis for the imperative dlige, love (cf. 449. c).]
dc exeat, tell him to go out. [p. 366]
NOTE 1.In such cases there is no ellipsis of ut. The expressions are idiomatic remnants of an older construction in which the subjunctives were hortatory or optative and thus really independent of the verb of wishing etc. In the classical period, however, they were doubtless felt as subordinate. Compare the use of cav and the subjunctive (without n) in Prohibitions ( 450), which appears to follow the analogy of fac.
NOTE 2.Licet may take (1) the Subjunctive, usually without ut; (2) the simple Infinitive; (3) the Infinitive with Subject Accusative; (4) the Dative and the Infinitive (see 455. 1). Thus, I may go is licet eam, licet re, licet m re, or licet mihi re.
For licet in concessive clauses, see 527. b.
NOTE 3.Oportet may take (1) the Subjunctive without ut; (2) the simple Infinitive; (3) the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. Thus I must go is oportet eam, oportet re, or oportet m re.
Verbs of commanding and the like often take the subjunctive without ut:
huic mandat Rms adeat (B. G. 3.11), he orders him to visit the Remi.
rogat fnem faciat (id. 1.20), he asks him to cease.
Mnsthea vocat, classem aptent soci; (Aen. 4.289), he calls Mnestheus [and orders that] his comrades shall make ready the fleet.
NOTE.The subjunctive in this construction is the hortatory subjunctive used to express a command in Indirect Discourse ( 588).
Substantive Clauses of Purpose with Passive Verbs
A Substantive Clause used as the object of a verb becomes the subject when the verb is put in the passive (Impersonal Construction):
Caesar ut cgnsceret postultum est (B. C. 1.87), Csar was requested to make an investigation (it was requested that Csar should make an investigation).
s erat Hracli ab sent mandtum ut emeret (Verr. 3.88), if Heraclius had been instructed by the senate to buy.
s persusum erat Cluvi ut mentrtur (Rosc. Com. 51), if Cluvius had been persuaded to lie.
put concd nbs oportre ut Graec verb tmur (Fin. 3.15), I think we must be allowed to use a Greek word.
n quid es nocetur Caesare cavtur (B. C. 1.86), Csar takes care that no harm shall be done them (care is taken by Csar lest, etc.).
With verbs of admonishing, the personal object becomes the subject and the object clause is retained:
admonit sumus ut cavrmus (Att. 8.11D. 3), we were warned to be careful.
cum monrtur ut cautior esset (Div. 1.51), when he was advised to be more cautious.
monr vsus est n id faceret (id. 56), he seemed to be warned not to do it. [p. 367]
Some verbs that take an infinitive instead of a subjunctive are used impersonally in the passive, and the infinitive becomes the subject of the sentence:
loqu nn concditur (B. G. 6.20), it is not allowed to speak.
With iube, vet, and cg, the subject accusative of the infinitive becomes the subject nominative of the main verb, and the infinitive is retained as complementary (Personal Construction):
adesse iubentur postrdi; (Verr. 2.41), they are ordered to be present on the following day.
re in exsilium iussus est (Cat. 2.12), he was ordered to go into exile.
Simnids vetitus est nvigre (Div. 2.134), Simonides was forbidden to sail.
Mandubi exre cguntur (B. G. 7.78), the Mandubii are compelled to go out.
Substantive Clauses of Result (Consecutive Clauses)
Clauses of Result may be used substantively, (1) as the object of faci etc. ( 568); (2) as the subject of these same verbs in the passive, as well as of other verbs and verbal phrases ( 569); (3) in apposition with another substantive, or as predicate nominative etc. (see 570, 571).
235
Substantive Clauses of Result with ut (negative ut nn) are used as the object of verbs denoting the accomplishment of an effort.
236
Such are especially faci and its compounds (effici, cnfici, etc.):
efficiam ut intellegtis (Clu. 7), I will make you understand (lit. effect that you, etc.). [So, faciam ut intellegtis (id. 9).]
commets ut portr possent efficibat (B. G. 2.5), made it possible that supplies could be brought.
perfc ut rgn ille discderet (Fam. 15.4.6), I brought about his departure from the kingdom.
quae lberts ut laetior esset rgis superbia fcerat (Liv. 2.1), the arrogance of the king had made this liberty more welcome.
vincunt nstand ut litterae darentur (id. 2.4), by insisting they gain their point,that letters should be sent. [Here vincunt = efficiunt.] [p. 368]
NOTE 1.The expressions facere ut, committere ut, with the subjunctive, often form a periphrasis for the simple verb: as,invtus fc ut Flminium sent icerem (Cat. M. 42), it was with reluctance that I expelled Flaminius from the senate.
Substantive Clauses of Result are used as the subject of the following:
1. Of passive verbs denoting the accomplishment of an effort:
impetrtum est ut in sent recitrentur (litterae) (B. C. 1.1), they succeeded in having the letter read in the senate (it was brought about that, etc.).
ita efficitur ut omne corpus mortle sit (N. D. 3.30), it therefore is made out that every body is mortal.
2. Of Impersonals meaning it happens, it remains, it follows, it is necessary, it is added, and the like ( 568, footnote):
accidit ut esset lna plna (B. G. 4.29), it happened to be full moon (it happened that it was, etc.). [Here ut esset is subject of accidit.]
reliquum est ut officis certmus inter ns (Fam. 7.31), it remains for us to vie with each other in courtesies.
restat ut hc dubitmus (Rosc. Am. 88), it is left for us to doubt this.
sequitur ut doceam (N. D. 2.81), the next thing is to show (it follows, etc.).
NOTE 1.The infinitive sometimes occurs: as,nec enim acciderat mihi opus esse (Fam. 6.11.1), for it had not happened to be necessary to me.
NOTE 2.Necesse est often takes the subjunctive without ut: as,concds necesse est (Rosc. Am. 87), you must grant.
3. Of est in the sense of it is the fact that, etc. (mostly poetic):
est ut vir vir ltius rdinet arbusta (Hor. Od. 3.1.9), it is the fact that one man plants his vineyards in wider rows than another.
Fore (or futrum esse) ut with a clause of result as subject is Often used instead of the Future Infinitive active or passive; so necessarily in verbs which have no supine stem:
spr fore ut contingat id nbs (Tusc. 1.82), I hope that will be our happy lot.
cum vidrem fore ut nn possem (Cat. 2.4), when I saw that I should not be able.
A substantive clause of result may be in apposition with another substantive (especially a neuter pronoun):
illud etiam restiterat, ut t in is dcerent (Quinct. 33), this too remained for them to drag you into court.
A substantive clause of result may serve as predicate nominative after ms est and similar expressions:
est ms hominum, ut nlint eundem plribus rbus excellere (Brut. 84), it is the way of men to be unwilling for one man to excel in several things. [p. 369]
A result clause, with or without ut, frequently follows quam after a comparative (but see 583. c):
Canach sgna rigidira sunt quam ut imitentur vrittem (Brut. 70), the statues of Canachus are too stiff to represent nature (stiffer than that they should).
perpessus est omnia potius quam indicret (Tusc. 2.52), he endured all rather than betray, etc. [Regularly without ut except in Livy.]
The phrase tantum abest, it is so far [from being the case], regularly takes two clauses of result with ut: one is substantive, the subject of abest; the other is adverbial, correlative with tantum:
tantum abest ut nostra mrmur, ut sque e difficils ac mrs smus, ut nbs nn satis faciat ipse Dmosthens (Or. 104), so far from admiring my own works, I am difficult and captious to that degree that not Demosthenes himself satisfies me. [Here the first ut-clause is the subject of abest ( 569. 2); the second, a result clause after tantum ( 537); and the third, after sque e.]
Rarely, a thought or an idea is considered as a result, and is expressed by the subjunctive with ut instead of the accusative and infinitive ( 580). In this case a demonstrative usually precedes:
praeclrum illud est, ut es ... ammus (Tusc. 3.73), this is a noble thing, that we should love, etc.
vr simile nn est ut ille antepneret (Verr. 4.11), it is not likely that he preferred.
For Relative Clauses with qun after verbs of hindering etc., see 558.
Indicative with Quod
A peculiar form of Substantive Clause consists of quod (in the sense of that, the fact that) with the Indicative.
The clause in the Indicative with quod is used when the statement is regarded as a fact:
alterum est vitium, quod qudam nimis mgnum studium cnferunt (Off. 1.19), it is another fault that some bestow too much zeal, etc. [Here ut cnferant could be used, meaning that some should bestow; or the accusative and infinitive, meaning to bestow (abstractly); quod makes it a fact that men do bestow, etc.]
inter inanimum et animal hc maxim interest, quod animal agit aliquid (Acad. 2.37), this is the chief difference between an inanimate object and an animal, that an animal aims at something.
quod rediit nbs mrbile vidtur (Off. 3.111), that he (Regulus) returned seems wonderful to us.
accidit perincommod quod eum nusquam vdist (Att. 1.17.2), it happened very unluckily that you nowhere saw him. [p. 370]
opportnissima rs accidit quod Germn vnrunt (B. G. 4.13), a very fortunate thing happened, (namely) that the Germans came.
praetere quod eam sibi domum sdemque dlgit (Clu. 188), I pass over the fact that she chose that house and home for herself.
mitt quod possessa per vim (Flacc. 79), I disregard the fact that they were seized by violence.
NOTE.Like other substantive clauses, the clause with quod may be used as subject, as object, as appositive, etc., but it is commonly either the subject or in apposition with the subject.
A substantive clause with quod sometimes appears as an accusative of specification, corresponding to the English whereas or as to the fact that:
quod mihi d nostr stat grtulris, minim mrmur t tus praeclrs operibus laetr; (Fam. 1.7.7), as to your congratulating me on our condition, we are not at all surprised that you are pleased with your own noble works.
quod d dom scrbis, ego, etc. (Fam. 14.2.3), as to what you write of the house, I, etc.
Verbs of feeling and the expression of feeling take either quod (quia) or the accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse):
quod scrbis ... gaude; (Q. Fr. 3.1.9), I am glad that you write.
faci libenter quod eam nn possum praeterre (Legg. 1.63), I am glad that I cannot pass it by.
quae perfecta esse vehementer laetor (Rosc. Am. 136), I greatly rejoice that this is finished.
qu quia nn habuit m turms equitum fortasse suscnset (Att. 6.3.5), who perhaps feels angry that he did not receive squadrons of cavalry from me.
molest tul t sentu grtis nn gisse (Fam. 10.27.1), I was displeased that you did not return thanks to the senate.
NOTE.Mror and similar expressions are sometimes followed by a clause with s.
237 This is apparently substantive, but really protasis (cf. 563. e. N. 1). Thus,mror s quemquam amcum habre potuit (Lael. 54), I wonder if he could ever have a friend. [Originally, If this is so, I wonder at it.]
Indirect Questions
An Indirect Question is any sentence or clause which is introduced by an interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, etc.), and which is itself the subject or object of a verb, or depends on any expression implying uncertainty or doubt.
In grammatical form, exclamatory sentences are not distinguished from interrogative (see the third example below). [p. 371]
An Indirect Question takes its verb in the Subjunctive:
quid ipse sentiam expnam (Div. 1.10), I will explain what I think. [Direct: quid senti?]
id possetne fier cnsuluit (id. 1.32), he consulted whether it could be done. [Direct: potestne?]
quam ss audx omns intellegere poturunt (Rosc. Am. 87), all could understand how bold you are. [Direct: quam es audx!]
doleam necne doleam nihil interest (Tusc. 2.29), it is of no account whether I suffer or not. [Double question.]
quaesv Catiln in convent apud M. Laecam fuisset necne (Cat. 2.13), I asked Catiline whether he had been at the meeting at Marcus Lca's or not. [Double question.]
rogat m quid sentiam, he asks me what I think. [Cf. rogat m sententiam, he asks me my opinion.]
hc dubium est, uter nostrum sit invercundior (Acad. 2.126), this is doubtful, which of us two is the less modest.
incert qutenus Voler exercret victriam (Liv. 2.55), uncertain how far Volero would push victory. [As if dubitants qutenus, etc.]
NOTE.An Indirect Question may be the subject of a verb (as in the fourth example), the direct object (as in the first), the secondary object (as in the sixth), an appositive (as in the seventh).
The Sequence of Tenses in Indirect Question is illustrated by the following examples:
dc quid faciam, I tell you what I am doing.
dc quid factrus sim, I tell you what I will (shall) do.
dc quid fcerim, I tell you what I did (have done, was doing).
dx quid facerem, I told you what I was doing.
dx quid fcissem, I told you what I had done (had been doing).
dx quid factrus essem, I told you what I would (should) do (was going to do).
dx quid factrus fuissem, I told you what I would (should) have done.
Indirect Questions referring to future time take the subjunctive of the First Periphrastic Conjugation:
prspici qu concurss futr sint (Caecil. 42), I foresee what throngs there will be. [Direct: qu erunt?]
quid sit futrum crs, fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. 1.9.13), forbear to ask what will be on the morrow. [Direct: quid erit or futrum est?]
posthc nn scrbam ad t quid factrus sim, sed quid fcerim (Att. 10.18), hereafter I shall not write to you what I am going to do, but what I have done. [Direct: quid facis (or factrus eris)? quid fcist?]
NOTE.This Periphrastic Future avoids the ambiguity which would be caused by using the Present Subjunctive to refer to future time in such clauses.
The Deliberative Subjunctive ( 444) remains unchanged in an Indirect Question, except sometimes in tense: [p. 372]
qu m vertam nesci; (Clu. 4), I do not know which way to turn. [Direct: qu m vertam?]
neque satis cnstbat quid agerent (B. G. 3.14), and it was not very clear what they were to do. [Direct: quid agmus?]
nec quisquam satis certum habet, quid aut spret aut timeat (Liv. 22.7.10), nor is any one well assured what he shall hope or fear. [Here the future participle with sit could not be used.]
incert quid peterent aut vtrent (id. 28.36.12), since it was doubtful (ablative absolute) what they should seek or shun.
Indirect Questions often take the Indicative in early Latin and in poetry:
vneam qu in agr cnser oportet sc observt; (Cato R. R. 6.4), in what soil a vineyard should be set you must observe thus.
Nesci quis, when used in an indefinite sense (somebody or other), is not followed by the Subjunctive.
So also nesci qu (unde, an, etc.), and the following idiomatic phrases which are practically adverbs:
mrum (nmrum) quam, marvellously (marvellous how).
mrum quantum, tremendously (marvellous how much).
immne quantum, monstrously (monstrous how much).
sn quam, immensely.
vald quam, enormously.
Examples are:
qu istam nesci quam indolentiam mgnopere laudant (Tusc. 3.12), who greatly extol that freedom from pain, whatever it is.
mrum quantum prfuit (Liv. 2.1), it helped prodigiously.
ita ft nesci qu contigisse arbitror (Fam. 15.13), I think it happened so by some fatality or other.
nam sus vald quam paucs habet (id. 11.13A. 3), for he has uncommonly few of his own.
sn quam sum gvsus (id. 11.13A. 4), I was immensely glad.
immne quantum discrepat (Hor. Od. 1.27.5), is monstrously at variance.
In colloquial usage and in poetry the subject of an In direct Question is often attracted into the main clause as object (Accusative of Anticipation):
nst Mrcellum quam tardus sit (Fam. 8.10.3), you know how slow Marcellus is. [For nst quam tardus sit Mrcellus. Cf. I know thee who thou art.]
Cf. potestne igitur erum rrum, qu r futrae sint, lla esse praesnsi; (Div. 2.15), can there be, then, any foreknowledge as to those things, why they will occur? [A similar use of the Objective Genitive.] [p. 373]
NOTE.In some cases the Object of Anticipation becomes the Subject by a change of voice, and an apparent mixture of relative and interrogative constructions is the result:
qudam saepe in parv pecni perspiciuntur quam sint levs (Lael. 63), it is often seen, in a trifling matter of money, how unprincipled some people are (some people are often seen through, how unprincipled they are).
quem ad modum Pompium oppgnrent m indict sunt (Leg. Agr. 1.5), it has been shown by me in what way they attacked Pompey (they have been shown by me, how they attacked).
An indirect question is occasionally introduced by s in the sense of whether (like if in English, cf. 572. b. N.):
circumfunduntur hosts s quem aditum reperre possent (B. G. 6.37), the enemy pour round [to see] if they can find entrance.
vsam s dom est (Ter. Haut. 170), I will go see if he is at home.
NOTE.This is strictly a Protasis, but usually no Apodosis is thought of, and the clause is virtually an Indirect Question.
For the Potential Subjunctive with forsitan (originally an Indirect Question), see 447. a.
INDIRECT DISCOURSE
[577] The use of the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (rti oblqua) is a comparatively late form of speech, developed in the Latin and Greek only, and perhaps separately in each of them. It is wholly wanting in Sanskrit, but some forms like it have grown up in English and German.
The essential character of Indirect Discourse is, that the language of some other person than the writer or speaker is compressed into a kind of Substantive Clause, the verb of the main clause becoming Infinitive, while modifying clauses, as well as all hortatory forms of speech, take the Subjunctive. The person of the verb necessarily conforms to the new relation of persons.
The construction of Indirect Discourse, however, is not limited to reports of the language of some person other than the speaker; it may be used to express what any onewhether the speaker or some one elsesays, thinks, or perceives, whenever that which is said, thought, or perceived is capable of being expressed in the form of a complete sentence. For anything that can be said etc. can also be reported indirectly as well as directly.
The use of the Infinitive in the main clause undoubtedly comes from its use as a case-form to complete or modify the action expressed by the verb of saying and its object together. This object in time came to be regarded as, and in fact to all intents became, the subject of the infinitive. A transition state is found in Sanskrit, which, though it has no indirect discourse proper, yet allows an indirect predication after verbs of saying and the like by means of a predicative apposition, in such expressions as The maids told the king [that] his daughter [was] bereft of her senses.
The simple form of indirect statement with the accusative and infinitive was afterwards amplified by introducing dependent or modifying clauses; and in Latin it became a common construction, and could be used to report whole speeches etc., which in other languages would have the direct form. (Compare the style of reporting speeches in English, where only the person and tense are changed.)
The Subjunctive in the subordinate clauses of Indirect Discourse has no significance except to make more distinct the fact that these clauses are subordinate; consequently no direct connection has been traced between them and the uses of the mood in simple [p. 374]
sentences. It is probable that the subjunctive in indirect questions ( 574), in informal indirect discourse ( 592), and in clauses of the integral part ( 593) represents the earliest steps of a movement by which the subjunctive became in some degree a mood of subordination.
The Subjunctive standing for hortatory forms of speech in Indirect Discourse is simply the usual hortatory subjunctive, with only a change of person and tense (if necessary), as in the reporter's style.
[578] A Direct Quotation gives the exact words of the original speaker or writer (rti Rcta).
An Indirect Quotation adapts the words of the speaker or writer to the construction of the sentence in which they are quoted (rti Oblqua).
NOTE.The term Indirect Discourse (rti oblqua) is used in two senses. In the wider sense it includes all clausesof whatever kindwhich express the words or thought of any person indirectly, that is, in a form different from that in which the person said the words or conceived the thought. In the narrower sense the term Indirect Discourse is restricted to those cases in which some complete proposition is cited in the form of an Indirect Quotation, which may be extended to a narrative or an address of any length, as in the speeches reported by Csar and Livy. In this book the term is used in the restricted sense.
FORMAL INDIRECT DISCOURSE
Verbs and other expressions of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving,
238 govern the Indirect Discourse.
NOTE.Inquam, said I (etc.) takes the Direct Discourse except in poetry.
Declaratory Sentences in Indirect Discourse
In Indirect Discourse the main clause of a Declaratory Sentence is put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. All subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive:
sci m paene incrdibilem rem pollicr (B. C. 3.86), I know that I am promising an almost incredible thing. [Direct: polliceor.]
nn arbitror t ita sentre (Fam. 10.26.2), I do not suppose that you feel thus. [Direct: sents.]
spr m lbertum [esse] d met; (Tusc. 2.67), I trust I have been freed from fear. [Direct: lbertus sum.] [p. 375]
[dcit] esse nn nlls qurum auctrits plrimum valeat (B. G. 1.17), he says there are some, whose influence most prevails. [Direct: sunt nn nll ... valet.]
nisi irsset, scelus s factrum [esse] arbitrbtur (Verr. 2.1.123), he thought he should incur guilt, unless he should take the oath. [Direct: nisi irver, faciam.]
The verb of saying etc. is often not expressed, but implied in some word or in the general drift of the sentence:
cnsulis alterus nmen invsum cvitt fuit: nimium Tarquinis rgn adsusse; initium Prsc factum; rgnsse dein Ser. Tullium, etc. (Liv. 2.2), the name of the other consul was hateful to the state; the Tarquins (they thought) had become too much accustomed to royal power, etc. [Here invsum implies a thought, and this thought is added in the form of Indirect Discourse.]
rants ut urbibus saltemiam enim agrs dplrts esseopem sentus ferret (id. 41.6), praying that the senate would at least bring aid to the citiesfor the fields [they said] were already given up as lost.
The verb neg, deny, is commonly used in preference to dc with a negative:
[Stic] negant quidquam [esse] bonum nisi quod honestum sit (Fin. 2.68), the Stoics assert that nothing is good but what is right.
Verbs of promising, hoping, expecting, threatening, swearing, and the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse, contrary to the English idiom:
mintur ss abre (Pl. Asin. 604), he threatens to go away. [Direct: abe, I am going away.]
sprant s maximum frctum esse captrs (Lael. 79), they hope to gain the utmost advantage. [Direct: capimus.]
sprat s absoltum r (Sull. 21), he hopes that he shall be acquitted. [Direct: absolvar.]
quem inimcissimum futrum esse prmitt ac sponde; (Mur. 90), who I promise and warrant will be the bitterest of enemies. [Direct: erit.]
dolor fortitdinem s dbilittrum mintur (Tusc. 5.76), pain threatens to wear down fortitude. [Direct: dbilitb.]
cnfd m quod velim facile t impetrtrum (Fam. 11.16.1), I trust I shall easily obtain from you what I wish. [Direct: quod vol, impetrb.]
NOTE.These verbs, however, often take a simple Complementary Infinitive ( 456) So regularly in early Latin (except spr):
239
pollicentur obsids dare (B. G. 4.21), they promise to give hostages.
prms dlium vn dare (Pl. Cist. 542), I promised to give a jar of wine. [p. 376]
Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of saying, or as verbs of commanding, effecting, and the like. These take as their object either an Infinitive with subject accusative or a Substantive clause of Purpose or Result, according to the sense.
1. Infinitive with Subject Accusative (Indirect Discourse):
laudem sapientiae statu esse maximam (Fam. 5.13), I hold that the glory of wisdom is the greatest. [Indirect Discourse.]
rs ipsa monbat tempus esse (Att. 10.8.1), the thing itself warned that it was time. [Cf. monre ut, warn to do something.]
fac mihi esse persusum (N. D. 1.75), suppose that I am persuaded of that. [Cf. facere ut, bring it about that.]
hc volunt persudre, nn interre anims (B. G. 6.14), they wish to convince that souls do not perish.
2. Subjunctive (Substantive Clause of Purpose or Result):
statuunt ut decem mlia hominum mittantur (B. G. 7.21), they resolve that 10,000 men shall be sent. [Purpose clause (cf. 563).]
huic persudet ut ad hosts trnseat (id. 3.18), he persuades him to pass over to the enemy.
Pompius sus praedxerat ut Caesaris impetum exciperent (B. C. 3.92), Pompey had instructed his men beforehand to await Csar's attack.
dnntivit ut essent anim part; (id. 3.86), he bade them be alert and steadfast (ready in spirit).
NOTE.The infinitive with subject accusative in this construction is Indirect Discourse, and is to be distinguished from the simple infinitive sometimes found with these verbs instead of a subjunctive clause ( 563. d).
The Subject Accusative of the Infinitive is regularly expressed in Indirect Discourse, even if it is wanting in the direct:
rtor sum, I am an orator; dcit s esse rtrem, he says he is an orator.
NOTE 1.But the subject is often omitted if easily understood:
gnscere imprdentiae dxit (B. G. 4.27), he said he pardoned their rashness.
eadem ab alis quaerit: reperit esse vra (id. 1.18), he inquires about these same things from others; he finds that they are true.
NOTE 2.After a relative, or quam (than), if the verb would be the same as that of the main clause, it is usually omitted, and its subject is attracted into the accusative:
t suspicor esdem rbus quibus m ipsum commovr; (Cat. M. 1), I suspect that you are disturbed by the same things as I.
cnfd tamen haec quoque tibi nn minus grta quam ipss librs futra (Plin. Ep. 3.5.20), I trust that these facts too will be no less pleasing to you than the books themselves.
NOTE 3.In poetry, by a Greek idiom, a Predicate Noun or Adjective in the indirect discourse sometimes agrees with the subject of the main verb:
vir bonus et sapins ait esse partus (Hor. Ep. 1.7.22), a good and wise man says he is prepared, etc. [In prose: ait s esse partum.]
snsit medis dlpsus in hosts (Aen. 2.377), he found himself fallen among the foe. [In prose: s esse dlpsum.] [p. 377]
When the verb of saying etc. is passive, the construction may be either Personal or Impersonal. But the Personal construction is more common and is regularly used in the tenses of incomplete action:
bet vxisse videor (Lael. 15), I seem to have lived happily.
Epamnnds fidibus praeclr cecinisse dcitur (Tusc. 1.4), Epaminondas is said to have played excellently on the lyre.
mult idem factr esse dcuntur (Fam. 16.12.4), many are said to be about to do the same thing. [Active: dcunt mults factrs (esse).]
prm trduntur arte qudam verba vnxisse (Or. 40), they first are related to have joined words with a certain skill.
Bibulus audibtur esse in Syri; (Att. 5.18), it was heard that Bibulus was in Syria (Bibulus was heard, etc.). [Direct: Bibulus est.]
cterae Illyric legins sectrae sprbantur (Tac. H. 2.74), the rest of the legions of Illyricum were expected to follow.
vidmur enim quitr fuisse, nisi essmus lacesst (De Or. 2.230), it seems that we should have kept quiet, if we had not been molested (we seem, etc.). [Direct: quissmus ... nisi essmus lacesst.]
NOTE.The poets and later writers extend the personal use of the passive to verbs which are not properly verba sentiend etc.: as, colligor dominae placuisse (Ov. Am. 2.6.61), it is gathered [from this memorial] that I pleased my mistress.
In the compound tenses of verbs of saying etc., the impersonal construction is more common, and with the gerundive is regular:
trditum est etiam Homrum caecum fuisse (Tusc. 5.114), it is a tradition, too, that Homer was blind.
ubi tyrannus est, ibi nn vitisam, sed dcendum est pln nllam esse rem pblicam (Rep. 3.43), where there is a tyrant, it must be said, not that the commonwealth is evil, but that it does not exist at all.
NOTE.An indirect narrative begun in the personal construction may be continued with the Infinitive and Accusative (as De Or. 2.299; Liv. 5.41.9).
Subordinate Clauses in Indirect Discourse
A Subordinate Clause merely explanatory, or containing statements which are regarded as true independently of the quotation, takes the Indicative:
quis neget haec omnia quae vidmus derum potestte administrr; (Cat. 3.21), who can deny that all these things we see are ruled by the power of the gods?
cius ingeni putbat ea quae gesserat posse celebrr; (Arch. 20), by whose genius he thought that those deeds which he had done could be celebrated. [Here the fact expressed by quae gesserat, though not explanatory, is felt to be true without regard to the quotation: quae gessisset would mean, what Marius claimed to have done.] [p. 378]
NOTE.Such a clause in the indicative is not regarded as a part of the Indirect Discourse; but it often depends merely upon the feeling of the writer whether he shall use the Indicative or the Subjunctive (cf. 591-593).
A subordinate clause in Indirect Discourse occasionally takes the Indicative when the fact is emphasized:
factum ius hostis perculum ... cum, Cimbrs et Teutons ... pulss, nn minrem laudem exercitus quam ipse impertor meritus vidbtur (B. G. 1.40), that a trial of this enemy had been made when, on the defeat of the Cimbri and Teutoni, the army seemed to have deserved no less credit than the commander himself.
Clauses introduced by a relative which is equivalent to a demonstrative with a conjunction are not properly subordinate, and hence take the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (see 308. f):
Mrcellus requssse dcitur Archimdem illum, quem cum audsset interfectum permolest tulisse (Verr. 4.131), Marcellus is said to have sought for Archimedes, and when he heard that he was slain, to have been greatly distressed. [quem=et eum.]
cnsent num quemque nostrum mund esse partem, ex qu [=et ex e] illud ntr cnsequ (Fin. 3.64), they say that each one of us is a part of the universe, from which this naturally follows.
NOTE.Really subordinate clauses occasionally take the accusative and infinitive. as,quem ad modum s nn ddtur obses pr rupt foedus s habitrum, sc dditam invioltam ad sus remissrum (Liv. 2.13), [he says] as in case the hostage is not given up he shall consider the treaty as broken, so if given up he will return her unharmed to her friends.
The infinitive construction is regularly continued after a comparative with quam:
addit s prius occsum r ab e quam m violtum r (Att. 2.20.2), he adds that he himself will be killed by him, before I shall be injured.
nnne adfrmv quidvs m potius perpessrum quam ex tali exitrum (Fam. 2.16.3), did I not assert that I would endure anything rather than leave Italy?
NOTE.The subjunctive with or without ut also occurs with quam (see 535. c).
Tenses of the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse
The Present, the Perfect, or the Future Infinitive
240 is used in Indirect Discourse, according as the time indicated is present, past, or future with reference to the verb of saying etc. by which the Indirect Discourse is introduced: [p. 379]
cad, I am falling.
dcit s cadere, he says he is falling.
dxit s cadere, he said he was falling.
cadbam, I was falling; cecid, I fell, have fallen; cecideram, I had fallen.
dcit s cecidisse, he says he was falling, fell, has fallen, had fallen.
dxit s cecidisse, he said he fell, had fallen.
cadam, I shall fall.
dcit s csrum [esse], he says he shall fall.
dxit s csrum [esse], he said he should fall.
cecider, I shall have fallen.
dcit fore ut ceciderit [rare], he says he shall have fallen.
dxit fore ut cecidisset [rare], he said he should have fallen.
All varieties of past time are usually expressed in Indirect Discourse by the Perfect Infinitive, which may stand for the Imperfect, the Perfect, or the Pluperfect Indicative of the Direct.
NOTE.Continued or repeated action in past time is sometimes expressed by the Present Infinitive, which in such cases stands for the Imperfect Indicative of the Direct Discourse and is often called the Imperfect Infinitive.
This is the regular construction after memin when referring to a matter of actual experience or observation: as,t memin haec dcere, I remember your saying this (that you said this). [Direct: dxist or dcbs.]
The present infinitive posse often has a future sense:
totus Galliae ss potr posse sprant (B. G. 1.3), they hope that they shall be able to get possession of all Gaul.
Tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse
The tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse follow the rule for the Sequence of Tenses ( 482). They depend for their sequence on the verb of saying etc. by which the Indirect Discourse is introduced.
Thus in the sentence, dxit s Rmam itrum ut cnsulem vidret, he said he should go to Rome in order that he might see the consul, vidret follows the sequence of dxit without regard to the Future Infinitive, itrum [esse], on which it directly depends.
NOTE.This rule applies to the subjunctive in subordinate clauses, to that which stands for the imperative etc. (see examples, 588), and to that in questions ( 586).
A subjunctive depending on a Perfect Infinitive is often in the Imperfect or Pluperfect, even if the verb of saying etc. is in a primary tense (cf. 485. j); so regularly when these tenses would have been used in Direct Discourse: [p. 380]
Tarquinium dxisse ferunt tum exsulantem s intellxisse qus fds amcs habuisset (Lael. 53), they tell us that Tarquin said that then in his exile he had found out what faithful friends he had had. [Here the main verb of saying, ferunt, is primary, but the time is carried back by dxisse and intellxisse, and the sequence then becomes secondary.]
tantum prfcisse vidmur ut Graecs n verbrum quidem cpi vincermur (N. D. 1.8), we seem to have advanced so far that even in abundance of words we ARE not surpassed by the Greeks.
NOTE 1.The proper sequence may be seen, in each case, by turning the Perfect Infinitive into that tense of the Indicative which it represents. Thus, if it stands for an imperfect or an historical perfect, the sequence will be secondary; if it stands for a perfect definite, the sequence may be either primary or secondary ( 485. a).
NOTE 2.The so-called imperfect infinitive after memin ( 584. a. N.) takes the secondary sequence: as,ad m adre qusdam memin, qu dcerent (Fam. 3.10.6), I remember that some persons visited me, to tell me, etc.
The Present and Perfect Subjunctive are often used in dependent clauses of the Indirect Discourse even when the verb of saying etc. is in a secondary tense:
dcbant ... totidem Nervis (pollicr) qu longissim absint (B. G. 2.4), they said that the Nervii, who live farthest off, promised as many.
NOTE.This construction comes from the tendency of language to refer all time in narration to the time of the speaker (repraesentti). In the course of a long pas sage in the Indirect Discourse the tenses of the subjunctive often vary, sometimes following the sequence, and sometimes affected by repraesentti. Examples may be seen in B. G. 1.13, 7.20, etc.
Certain constructions are never affected by repraesentti. Such are the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive with cum temporal, antequam, and priusquam.
Questions in Indirect Discourse
A Question in Indirect Discourse may be either in the Subjunctive or in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative.
A real question, asking for an answer, is generally put in the Subjunctive; a rhetorical question, asked for effect and implying its own answer, is put in the Infinitive:
quid sibi vellet? cr in sus possessins venret (B. G. 1.44), what did he want? why did he come into his territories? [Real question. Direct: quid vs? cr vens?]
num recentium inirirum memoriam [s] dpnere posse (id. 1.14), could he lay aside the memory of recent wrongs? [Rhetorical Question. Direct: num possum?]
quem sgnum datrum fugientibus? quem ausrum Alexandr succdere (Q. C. 3.5.7), who will give the signal on the retreat? who will dare succeed Alexander? [Rhetorical. Direct: quis dabit ... audbit.] [p. 381]
NOTE 1.No sharp line can be drawn between the Subjunctive and the Infinitive in questions in the Indirect Discourse. Whether the question is to be regarded as rhetorical or real often depends merely on the writer's point of view:
utrum partem rgn pettrum esse, an ttum reptrum (Liv. 45.19.15), will you ask part of the regal power (he said), or seize the whole?
quid tandem praetr faciendum fuisse (id. 31.48), what, pray, ought a prtor to have done?
quid repente factum [esse] cr, etc. (id. 34.54), what had suddenly happened, that, etc.?
NOTE 2.Questions coming immediately after a verb of asking are treated as Indirect Questions and take the Subjunctive (see 574). This is true even when the verb of asking serves also to introduce a passage in the Indirect Discourse. The question may be either real or rhetorical. See quaesvit, etc. (Liv. 37.15).
For the use of tenses, see 585.
A Deliberative Subjunctive ( 444) in the Direct Discourse is always retained in the Indirect:
cr aliqus ex sus mitteret (B. C. 1.72), why (thought he) should he lose some of his men? [Direct: cr mittam?]
Commands in Indirect Discourse
All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse:
reminscertur veteris incommod; (B. G. 1.13), remember (said he) the ancient disaster. [Direct: reminscere.]
fnem faciat (id. 1.20), let him make an end. [Direct: fac.]
ferrent opem, adiuvrent (Liv. 2.6), let them bring aid, let them help.
This rule applies not only to the Imperative of the direct discourse, but to the Hortatory and the Optative Subjunctive as well.
NOTE 1.Though these subjunctives stand for independent clauses of the direct discourse, they follow the rule for the sequence of tenses, being in fact dependent on the verb of saying etc. (cf. 483, 585).
NOTE 2.A Prohibition in the Indirect Discourse is regularly expressed by n with the present or imperfect subjunctive, even when nl with the infinitive would be used in the Direct: as,n perturbrentur (B. G. 7.29), do not (he said) be troubled. [Direct: nlte perturbr. But sometimes nllet is found in Indirect Discourse.]
Conditions in Indirect Discourse
Conditional sentences in Indirect Discourse are expressed as follows:
1. The Protasis, being a subordinate clause, is always in the Subjunctive.
2. The Apodosis, if independent and not hortatory or optative, is always in some form of the Infinitive. [p. 382]
The Present Subjunctive in the apodosis of less vivid future conditions ( 516. b) becomes the Future Infinitive like the Future Indicative in the apodosis of more vivid future conditions.
Thus there is no distinction between more and less vivid future conditions in the Indirect Discourse.
Examples of Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse are
1. Simple Present Condition ( 515):
(dxit) s ipse popul Rmn nn praescrberet quem ad modum su ire tertur, nn oportre ss popul Rmn in su ire impedr (B. G. 1.36), he said that if he did not dictate to the Roman people how they should use their rights, he ought not to be interfered with by the Roman people in the exercise of his rights. [Direct: s nn praescrb ... nn oportet.]
praedicvit ... s pce t velint, inquum esse, etc. (id. 1.44), he asserted that if they wished to enjoy peace, it was unfair, etc. [Direct: s volunt ... est. Present tense kept by repraesentti ( 585. b. N.).]
2. Simple Past Condition ( 515):
nn dcam n illud quidem, s maxim in culp fuerit Apollnius, tamen in hominem honestissimae cvittis honestissimum tam graviter animadvert, caus indict, nn oportuisse (Verr. 5.20), I will not say this either, that, even if Apollonius was very greatly in fault, still an honorable man from an honorable state ought not to have been punished so severely without having his case heard. [Direct: s fuit ... nn oportuit.]
3. Future Conditions ( 516):
(dxit) quod s praetere nm sequtur, tamen s cum sl decim legine itrum (B. G. 1.40), but if nobody else should follow, still he would go with the tenth legion alone. [Direct: s sequtur ... b. Present tense by repraesentti ( 585. b. N.).]
Haedus s obsids redditrum nn esse, neque es ... bellum illtrum, s in e manrent, quod convnisset, stipendiumque quotanns penderent: s id nn fcissent, long es frternum nmen popul Rmn futrum (id. 1.36), he said that he would not give up the hostages to the Haedui, but would not make war upon them if they observed the agreement which had been made, and paid tribute yearly; but that, if they should not do this, the name of brothers to the Roman people would be far from aiding them. [Direct: reddam ... nferam ... s manbunt ... pendent: s nn fcerint ... aberit.]
<*>d Datams ut audvit, snsit, s in turbam exsset ab homine tam necessri s relictum, futrum [esse] ut cter cnsilium sequantur (Nep. Dat. 6), when Datames heard this, he saw that, if it should get abroad that he had been abandoned by a man so closely connected with him, everybody else would follow his example. [Direct: s exierit ... sequentur.] [p. 383]
(putvrunt) nisi m cvitte expulissent, obtinre s nn posse licentiam cupidittum surum (Att. 10.4), they thought that unless they drove me out of the state, they could not have free play for their desires. [Direct: nisi (Cicernem) expulerimus, obtinre nn poterimus.]
In changing a Condition contrary to fact ( 517) into the Indirect Discourse, the following points require notice:
1. The Protasis always remains unchanged in tense.
2. The Apodosis, if active, takes a peculiar infinitive form, made by combining the Participle in -rus with fuisse.
3. If the verb of the Apodosis is passive or has no supine stem, the periphrasis futrum fuisse ut (with the Imperfect Subjunctive) must be used.
4. An Indicative in the Apodosis becomes a Perfect Infinitive.
Examples are:
nec s superstitem fliae futrum fuisse, nisi spem ulcscendae mortis ius in auxili commlitnum habuisset (Liv. 3.50.7), and that he should not now be a survivor, etc., unless he had had hope, etc. [Direct: nn superstes essem, nisi habuissem.]
illud Asia cgitet, nllam s neque bell extern neque discordirum domesticrum calamittem futram fuisse, s hc imperi nn tenrtur (Q. Fr. 1.1.34), let Asia (personified) think of this, that no disaster, etc., would not be hers, if she were not held by this government. [Direct: abesset, s nn tenrer.]
quid inimcitirum crditis [m] exceptrum fuisse, s nsonts lacessssem (Q. C. 6.10.18), what enmities do you think I should have incurred, if I had wantonly assailed the innocent? [excpissem ... s lacessssem.]
invtum s dcere, nec dictrum fuisse, n crits re pblicae vinceret (Liv. 2.2), that he spoke unwillingly and should not have spoken, did not love for the state prevail. [Direct: nec dxissem ... n vinceret.]
nisi e tempore qudam nnti d Caesaris victri ... essent allt, exstimbant plrque futrum fuisse ut [oppidum] mittertur (B. C. 3.101), most people thought that unless at that time reports of Csar's victory had been brought, the town would have been lost. [Direct: nisi essent allt ... missum esset.]
qurum s aets potuisset esse longinquior, futrum fuisse ut omnibus perfects artibus hominum vta rudrtur (Tusc. 3.69), if life could have been longer, human existence would have been embellished by every art in its perfection. [Direct: s potuisset ... rudta esset.]
at plrque exstimant, s crius nsequ voluisset, bellum e di potuisse fnre (B. C. 3.51), but most people think that, if he had chosen to follow up the pursuit more vigorously, he could have ended the war on that day. [Direct: s voluisset ... potuit.]
Caesar respondit ... s alicius iniriae sibi cnscius fuisset, nn fuisse difficile cavre (B. G. 1.14), Csar replied that if [the Roman people] had been aware of any wrong act, it would not have been hard for them to take precautions. [Direct: s fuisset, nn difficile fuit ( 517. c).] [p. 384]
NOTE 1.In Indirect Discourse Present Conditions contrary to fact are not distinguished in the apodosis from Past Conditions contrary to fact, but the protasis may keep them distinct.
NOTE 2.The periphrasis futrum fuisse ut is sometimes used from choice when there is no necessity for resorting to it, but not in Csar or Cicero.
NOTE 3.Very rarely the Future Infinitive is used in the Indirect Discourse to express the Apodosis of a Present Condition contrary to fact. Only four or five examples of this use occur in classic authors: as,Titurius clmbat s Caesar adesset neque Carnuts, etc., neque Eburns tant cum contemptine nostra ad castra ventrs esse (B. G. 5.29), Titurius cried out that if Csar were present, neither would the Carnutes, etc., nor would the Eburones be coming to our camp with such contempt, [Direct: s adesset ... venrent.]
The following example illustrates some of the foregoing principles in a connected address:
| INDIRECT DISCOURSE |
DIRECT DISCOURSE |
|
S pcem populus Rmnus cum Helvtis faceret, in eam partem itrs atque ibi futrs Helvtis, ubi es Caesar cnstituisset atque esse voluisset: sn bell persequ persevrret, reminscertur et veteris incommod popul Rmn, et prstinae virttis Helvtirum. Quod imprvs num pgum adortus esset, cum e qu flmen trnsssent sus auxilium ferre nn possent, n ob eam rem aut suae mgn opere virtt tribueret, aut ipss dspiceret: s ita patribus miribusque sus didicisse, ut magis virtte quam dol contenderent, aut nsidis nterentur. Qu r n committeret, ut is locus ubi cnstitissent ex calamitte popul Rmn et internecine exercits nmen caperet, aut memoriam prderet. B. G. 1.13. |
S pcem populus Rmnus cum Helvtis faciet, in eam partem bunt atque ibi erunt Helvti, ubi es t cnstitueris atque esse volueris: sn bell persequ persevrbis, reminscere [inquit] et veteris incommod popul Rmn, et prstinae virttis Helvtirum. Quod imprvs num pgum adortus es, cum e qu flmen trnsierant sus auxilium ferre nn possent, n ob eam rem aut tuae mgn opere virtt tribueris, aut ns dspexeris: ns ita patribus miribusque nostrs didicimus, ut magis virtte quam dol contendmus, aut nsidis ntmur. Qu r nl committere, ut hc locus ubi cnstitimus ex calamitte popul Rmn et internecine exercits nmen capiat, aut memoriam prdat. |
INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES
A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive
1. When it expresses the thought of some other person than the speaker or writer (Informal Indirect Discourse), or
2. When it is an integral part of a Subjunctive clause or equivalent Infinitive (Attraction).
241 [p. 385]
Informal Indirect Discourse
A Subordinate Clause takes the Subjunctive when it expresses the thought of some other person than the writer or speaker:
1. When the clause depends upon another containing a wish, a command, or a question, expressed indirectly, though not strictly in the form of Indirect Discourse:
animal sentit quid sit quod deceat (Off. 1.14), an animal feels what it is that is fit.
huic imperat qus possit adeat cvitts (B. G. 4.21), he orders him to visit what states he can.
hunc sibi ex anim scrpulum, qu s dis noctsque stimulat ac pungit, ut velltis postulat (Rosc. Am. 6), he begs you to pluck from his heart this doubt that goads and stings him day and night. [Here the relative clause is not a part of the Purpose expressed in velltis, but is an assertion made by the subject of postulat.]
2. When the main clause of a quotation is merged in the verb of saying, or some modifier of it:
s quid d hs rbus dcere vellet, fc potesttem (Cat. 3.11), if he wished to say anything about these matters, I gave him a chance.
tulit d caede quae in Appi vi facta esset (Mil. 15), he passed a law concerning the murder which (in the language of the bill) took place in the Appian Way.
nisi restituissent status, vehementer mintur (Verr. 2.162), he threatens them violently unless they should restore the statues. [Here the main clause, that he will inflict punishment, is contained in mintur.]
is auxilium suum pollicitus s ab Subs premerentur (B. G. 4.19), he promised them his aid if they should be molested by the Suevi. [=pollicitus s auxilium ltrum, etc.]
prohibiti tollend, nisi pactus esset, vim adhibbat pactin; (Verr. 3.37), the forbidding to take away unless he came to terms gave force to the bargain.
3. When a reason or an explanatory fact is introduced by a relative or by quod (rarely quia) (see 540):
Paetus omns librs qus frter suus relquisset mihi dnvit (Att. 2.1.12), Ptus presented to me all the books which (he said) his brother had left.
NOTE.Under this head even what the speaker himself thought under other circumstances may have the Subjunctive. So also with quod even the verb of saying may be in the Subjunctive ( 540. N.2). Here belong also nn quia, nn quod, introducing a reason expressly to deny it. (See 540. N.3.) [p. 386]
Subjunctive of Integral Part (Attraction)
A clause depending upon a Subjunctive clause or an equivalent Infinitive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded as an integral part of that clause:
242
imperat, dum rs idictur, hominem adservent: cum idicta sit, ad s ut addcant (Verr. 3.55), he orders them, till the affair should be decided, to keep the man; when it is judged, to bring him to him.
etenim quis tam dissolt anim est, qu haec cum videat, tacre ac neglegere possit (Rosc. Am. 32), for who is so reckless of spirit that, when he sees these things, he can keep silent and pass them by ?
ms est Athns laudr in cntine es qu sint in proelis interfect; (Or. 151), it is the custom at Athens for those to be publicly eulogized who have been slain in battle. [Here laudr is equivalent to ut laudentur.]
But a dependent clause may be closely connected grammatically with a Subjunctive or Infinitive clause, and still take the Indicative, if it is not regarded as a necessary logical part of that clause:
qudam mod postulat ut, quem ad modum est, sc etiam appelltur, tyrannus (Att. 10.4.2), in a manner he demands that as he is, so he may be called, a tyrant.
ntra fert ut es favemus qu eadem percula quibus ns perfnct sumus ingrediuntur (Mur. 4), nature prompts us to feel friendly towards those who are entering on the same dangers which we have passed through.
n hosts, quod tantum multitdine poterant, sus circumvenre possent (B. G. 2.8), lest the enemy, because they were so strong in numbers, should be able to surround his men.
s mea in t essent officia slum tanta quanta magis t ips praedicr quam m ponderr solent, vercundius t ... peterem (Fam. 2.6), if my good services to you were only so great as they are wont rather to be called by you than to be estimated by me, I should, etc.
NOTE 1.The use of the Indicative in such clauses sometimes serves to emphasize the fact, as true independently of the statement contained in the subjunctive or infinitive clause. But in many cases no such distinction is perceptible.
NOTE 2.It is often difficult to distinguish between Informal Indirect Discourse and the Integral Part. Thus in impervit ut ea fierent quae opus essent, essent may stand for sunt, and then will be Indirect Discourse, being a part of the thought, but not a part of the order; or it may stand for erunt, and then will be Integral Part, being a part of the order itself. The difficulty of making the distinction in such cases is evidence of the close relationship between these two constructions. [p. 387]
IMPORTANT RULES OF SYNTAX
[594]
1. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in Case ( 282).
2. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree with their nouns in Gender, Number, and Case ( 286).
3. Superlatives (more rarely Comparatives) denoting order and successionalso medius, (cterus), reliquususually designate not what object, but what part of it, is meant ( 293).
4. The Personal Pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that in -um being used partitively, and that in - oftenest objectively ( 295. b).
5. The Reflexive Pronoun (s), and usually the corresponding possessive (suus), are used in the predicate to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause ( 299).
6. To express Possession and similar ideas the Possessive Pronouns must be used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive pronouns ( 302. a).
7. A Possessive Pronoun or an Adjective implying possession may take an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, and case with an implied noun or pronoun ( 302. e).
8. A Relative Pronoun agrees with its Antecedent in Gender and Number, but its Case depends on its construction in the clause in which it stands ( 305).
9. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Person ( 316).
10. Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs ( 321).
11. A Question of simple fact, requiring the answer yes or no, is formed by adding the enclicic -ne to the emphatic word ( 332).
12. When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word,as in nnne, an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a negative answer ( 332. b).
13. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative ( 339).
14. The Vocative is the case of direct address ( 340).
15. A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same person or thing, is put in the Genitive ( 342).
16. The Possessive Genitive denotes the person or thing to which an object, quality, feeling, or action belongs ( 343). [p. 388]
17. The genitive may denote the Substance or Material of which a thing consists ( 344).
18. The genitive is used to denote Quality, but only when the quality is modified by an adjective ( 345).
19. Words denoting a part are followed by the Genitive of the whole to which the part belongs (Partitive Genitive, 346).
20. Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the Genitive of the object (Objective Genitive, 348).
21. Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power, sharing, guilt, and their opposites; participles in -ns when used as adjectives; and verbals in -x, govern the Genitive ( 349. a, b, c).
22. Verbs of remembering and forgetting take either the Accusative or the Genitive of the object ( 350).
23. Verbs of reminding take with the Accusative of the person a Genitive of the thing ( 351).
24. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting take the Genitive of the charge or penalty ( 352).
25. The Dative is used of the object indirectly affected by an action (Indirect Object, 361).
26. Many verbs signifying to favor, help, please, trust, and their contraries; also, to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare, take the Dative ( 367).
27. Many verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, pr, sub, super, and some with circum, admit the Dative of the indirect object ( 370).
28. The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote Possession ( 373).
29. The Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive, to denote the person on whom the necessity rests ( 374).
30. The Dative often depends, not on any particular word, but on the general meaning of the sentence (Dative of Reference, 376).
31. Many verbs of taking away and the like take the Dative (especially of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation ( 381).
32. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often with another Dative of the person or thing affected ( 382).
33. The Dative is used with adjectives (and a few adverbs) of fitness, nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites ( 384). [p. 389]
34. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Accusative ( 387).
35. An intransitive verb often takes the Accusative of a noun of kindred meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some other manner (Cognate Accusative, 390).
36. Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, showing, and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the direct object ( 393).
37. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take (in addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, originally governed by the preposition ( 394).
38. Some verbs of asking and teaching may take two Accusatives, one of the Person, and the other of the Thing ( 396).
39. The subject of an Infinitive is in the Accusative ( 397. e).
40. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are expressed by the Accusative ( 424. c, 425).
41. Words signifying separation or privation are followed by the Ablative (Ablative of Separation, 400).
42. The Ablative, usually with a preposition, is used to denote the source from which anything is derived or the material of which it consists ( 403).
43. The Ablative, with or without a preposition, is used to express cause ( 404).
44. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is expressed by the Ablative with or ab ( 405).
45. The Comparative degree is often followed by the Ablative signifying than ( 406).
46. The Comparative may be followed by quam, than. When quam is used, the two things compared are put in the same case ( 407).
47. The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument of an action ( 409).
48. The deponents, tor, fruor, fungor, potior, and vscor, with several of their compounds, govern the Ablative ( 410).
49. Opus and sus, signifying need, are followed by the Ablative ( 411).
50. The manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative, usually with cum unless a limiting adjective is used with the noun ( 412). [p. 390]
51. Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with cum ( 413).
52. With Comparatives and words implying comparison the Ablative is used to denote the degree of difference ( 414).
53. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with an adjective or genitive Modifier ( 415).
54. The price of a thing is put in the Ablative ( 416).
55. The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to which anything is or is done ( 418).
56. The adjectives dgnus and indgnus take the Ablative ( 418. b).
57. A noun or pronoun, with a participle in agreement, may be put in the Ablative to define the time or circumstances of an action (Ablative Absolute, 419).
An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the participle in the ablative absolute construction ( 419. a).
58. Time when, or within which, is denoted by the Ablative; time how long by the Accusative ( 423).
59. Relations of Place are expressed as follows:
1. The place from which, by the Ablative with ab, d, ex.
2. The place to which (or end of motion), by the Accusative with ad or in.
3. The place where, by the Ablative with in (Locative Ablative). ( 426.)
60. With names of towns and small islands, and with domus and rs, the relations of place are expressed as follows:
1. The place from which, by the Ablative without a preposition.
2. The place to which, by the Accusative without a preposition.
3. The place where, by the Locative. ( 427.)
61. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used in the present tense to express an exhortation, a command, or a concession. ( 439, 440).
62. The Optative Subjunctive is used to express a wish. The present tense denotes the wish as possible, the imperfect as unaccomplished in present time, the pluperfect as unaccomplished in past time ( 441).
63. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying (1) doubt, indignation, or (2) an impossibility of the thing's being done (Deliberative Subjunctive, 444). [p. 391]
64. The Potential Subjunctive is used to suggest an action as possible or conceivable ( 446).
65. The Imperative is used in commands and entreaties ( 448).
66. Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose (1) by nl with the Infinitive, (2) by cav with the Present Subjunctive, (3) by n with the Perfect Subjunctive ( 450).
67. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may be used with est and similar verbs (1) as the Subject, (2) in Apposition with the subject, or (3) as a Predicate Nominative ( 452).
68. Verbs which imply another action of the same subject to complete their meaning take the Infinitive without a subject accusative (Complementary Infinitive, 456).
69. The Infinitive, with subject accusative, is used with verbs and other expressions of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving (Indirect Discourse, see 459).
70. The Infinitive is often used for the Imperfect Indicative in narration, and takes a subject in the Nominative (Historical Infinitive, 463).
71. SEQUENCE OF TENSES. In complex sentences, a primary tense in the main clause is followed by the Present or Perfect Subjunctive in the dependent clause; a secondary tense by the Imperfect or Pluperfect ( 483).
72. Participles denote time as present, past, or future with respect to the time of the verb in their clause ( 489).
73. The Gerund and the Gerundive are used, in the oblique cases, in many of the constructions of nouns ( 501-507).
74. The Supine in -um is used after verbs of motion to express Purpose ( 509).
75. The Supine in - is used with a few adjectives and with the nouns fs, nefs, and opus, to denote Specification ( 510).
76. Dum, modo, dummodo, and tantum ut, introducing a Proviso, take the Subjunctive ( 528).
77. Final clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut (ut), negative n (ut n), or by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb ( 531).
78. A Relative Clause with the Subjunctive is often used to indicate a characteristic of the antecedent, especially where the antecedent is otherwise undefined ( 535).
79. Dgnus, indgnus, aptus, and idneus, take a Subjunctive clause with a relative (rarely with ut) ( 535. f). [p. 392]
80. Clauses of Result take the Subjunctive introduced by ut, so that (negative, ut nn), or by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb ( 537).
81. The Causal Particles quod, quia, and quoniam take the Indicative when the reason is given on the authority of the writer or speaker; the Subjunctive when the reason is given on the authority of another ( 540).
82. The particles postquam (postequam), ubi, ut (ut prmum, ut semel), simul atque (simul ac, or simul alone) take the Indicative (usually in the perfect or the historical present) ( 543).
83. A Temporal clause with cum, when, and some past tense of the Indicative dates or defines the time at which the action of the main verb occurred ( 545).
84. A Temporal clause with cum and the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive describes the circumstances that accompanied or preceded the action of the main verb ( 546).
85. Cum Causal or Concessive takes the Subjunctive ( 549).
For other concessive particles, see 527.
86. In Indirect Discourse the main clause of a Declaratory Sentence is put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. All subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive ( 580).
87. The Present, the Perfect, or the Future Infinitive is used in Indirect Discourse, according as the time indicated is present, past, or future with reference to the verb of saying etc. by which the Indirect Discourse is introduced ( 584).
88. In Indirect Discourse a real question is generally put in the Subjunctive; a rhetorical question in the Infinitive ( 586).
89. All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse ( 588).
90. A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive when it expresses the thought of some other person than the writer or speaker (Informal Indirect Discourse, 592).
91. A clause depending on a Subjunctive clause or an equivalent Infinitive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded as an integral part of that clause (Attraction, 593).
For Prepositions and their cases, see 220, 221.
For Conditional Sentences, see 512 ff. (Scheme in 514.)
For ways of expressing Purpose, see 533. [p. 393]
