NEWTON, ISAAC (b. Woolsthorpe, England, 25 December 1642; d. London, England, 20 March 1727), mathematics, dynamics, celestial mechanics, astronomy, optics, natural philosophy.

    The Leibniz-Clarke Correspondence was edited by H. G. Alexander (Manchester, 1956).

11. Newton's Philosophy: The Rules of Philosophizing, the General Scholium, the Queries of the Opticks. Among the many books and articles on Newton's philosophy, those of Rosenberger, Bloch, and Koyré (VI) are highly recommended. On the evolution of the General Scholium, see A. R. and M. B. Hall, Unpublished Papers (II), pt. IV, intro. and sec. 8; and I. B. Cohen, Transformations of Scientific Ideas (the Wiles Lectures, in press) (5) and “Hypotheses in Newton's Philosophy,” in Physis, 8 (1966), 163-184.

The other studies of Newton's philosophy are far too numerous to list here; authors include Gerd Buchdahl, Ernst Cassirer, A. C. Crombie, N. R. Hanson, Ernst Mach, Jürgen Mittelstrass, John Herman Randall, Jr., Dudley Shapere, Howard Stein, and E. W. Strong.

I. B. COHEN

SOVIET LITERATURE ON NEWTON

A profound and manifold study of Newton's life and work began in Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century; for earlier works see the article by T. P. Kravets, cited below.

The foundation of Soviet studies on Newton was laid by A. N. Krylov, who in 1915-1916 published the complete Principia in Russian, with more than 200 notes and supplements of a historical, philological, and mathematical nature. More than a third of the volume is devoted to supplements that present a complete, modern analytic exposition of various theorems and proofs of the original text, the clear understanding of which is often too difficult for the modern reader: “Matematicheskie nachala naturalnoy estestvennoy filosofii” (“The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy”), in Izvestiya Nikolaevskoi morskoi akademii, 4-5 (1915-1916); 2nd ed. in Sobranie trudov akademika A. N. Krylova (“Collected Works of Academician A. N. Krylov”), VII (Moscow-Leningrad, 1936). Krylov devoted special attention to certain of Newton's methods and demonstrated that after suitable modification and development they could still be of use. Works on this subject include “Besedy o sposobakh opredelenia orbit komet i planet po malomu chislu nabludenii” (“Discourse on Methods of Determining Planetary and Cometary Orbits Based on a Limited Number of Observations”), ibid., VI, 1-149; a series of papers, ibid., V, 227-298; and “Nyutonova teoria astronomicheskoy refraktsii” (“Newton's Theory of Astronomical Refraction”), ibid., V, 151-225; see also his “On a Theorem of Sir Isaac Newton,” in Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 84 (1924), 392-395. On Krylov's work, see A. T. Grigorian, “Les études Newtoniennes de A. N. Krylov,” in I. B. Cohen and R. Taton, eds., Mélanges Alexandre Koyré, II (Paris, 1964), 198-207.

A Russian translation of Newton's Observations on the Prophecies ... of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John was published simultaneously with the first Russian edition of Principia as Zamechania na knigu Prorok Daniil i Apokalipsis sv. Ioanna (Petrograd, 1916); the translator's name is not given.

An elaborately annotated translation of Newton's works on optics is S. I. Vavilov, ed., Optika ili traktat ob otrazheniakh, prelomleniakh, izgibaniakh i tsvetakh sveta (“Optics”; Moscow-Leningrad, 1927; 2nd ed., Moscow, 1954). Vavilov also published Russian translations of two of Newton's essays, “Novaya teoria sveta i tsvetov” (“A New Theory of Light and Colors”) and “Odna gipotesa, obyasnyayushchaya svoystva sveta, izlozhennaya v neskolkikh moikh statyakh” (“A Hypothesis Explaining the Properties of Light Presented in Several of My Papers”), in Uspekhi fizicheskikh nauk, 2 (1927), 121-163; and Lektsii po optike (“Lectiones opticae”; Leningrad, 1946). Vavilov was the first to study thoroughly the significance of the last work in the development of physics.

Newton's mathematical works published by Castillon in vol. I of Opuscula mathematica (1744) were translated by D. D. Mordukhay-Boltovskoy as Matematicheskie raboty (“Mathematical Works”; Moscow-Leningrad, 1937); the editor's 336 notes constitute nearly a third of the volume. Arithmetica universalis was translated by A. P. Youschkevitch with commentary as Vseobshchaya arifmetika ili kniga ob arifmeticheskikh sintese i analise (Moscow, 1948).

Many works dedicated to various aspects of Newton's scientific activity and to his role in the development of science were included in the tercentenary volumes Isaak Nyuton. 1643-1727. Sbornik statey k trekhsotletiyu so dnya rozhdenia, S. I. Vavilov, ed. (Moscow-Leningrad, 1943); and Moskovsky universitet—pamyati Nyutona—sbornik statey (Moscow, 1946). These works are cited below as Symposium I and Symposium II, respectively.

Z. A. Zeitlin, in Nauka i gipotesa (“Science and Hypothesis”; Moscow-Leningrad, 1926), studied the problem of Newton's methodology, particularly the roles of Bentley and Cotes in preparing the 2nd ed. of the Principia, and emphasized that both scientists had falsified Newtonian methods; the majority of other authors did not share his viewpoint. In “Efir, svet i veshchestvo v fisike Nyutona” (“Ether, Light, and Matter in Newton's Physics”), in Symposium I, 33-52, S. I. Vavilov traced the evolution of Newton's views on the hypothesis of the ether, the theory of light, and the structure of matter. Vavilov also dealt with Newton's methods and the role of hypothesis in ch. 10 of his biography Isaak Nyuton (Moscow-Leningrad, 1943; 2nd ed., rev. and enl., 1945; 3rd ed., 1961). The 3rd ed. of this work appeared in vol. III of Vavilov's Sobranie sochinenii (“Selected Works”; Moscow, 1956), which contains all of Vavilov's papers on Newton. The biography also appeared in German trans. (Vienna, 1948; Berlin, 1951).

B. M. Hessen in Sotsialno-ekonomicheskie korni mekhaniki Nyutona (“The Socioeconomic Roots of Newton's Mechanics”), presented to the Second International Congress of the History of Science and Technology held in London in 1931 (Moscow-Leningrad, 1933), attempted to analyze the origin and development of Newton's work in Marxist terms. Hessen examined the Principia in the